COMPUTATIONAL LINGUISTICS

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h+and+various+other+languages.+For%0D%0Aexample%2C+the+English+verb+give+has+two+possible+syntactic+options%0D%0Afor+the+third+valency%3A+without+preposition+%28John+gives+him+a+book%29%0D%0Avs.+with+the+preposition+to+%28John+gives+a+book+to+him%29.%0D%0AThe+word+order+is+generally+not+related+with+the+numeration+of+the%0D%0Asyntactic+valencies+in+a+government+pattern.+If+all+permutations+of%0D%0Avalencies+of+a+specific+verb+are+permitted+in+the+language%2C+then+no%0D%0AA+HISTORICAL+OUTLINE%0D%0A49%0D%0Ainformation+about+word+order+is+needed+in+this+GP.+Elsewhere%2C+information%0D%0Aabout+forbidden+or+permitted+combinations+is+given+explicitly%2C%0D%0Ato+make+easier+the+syntactic+analysis.+For+example%2C+the+English%0D%0Averb+give+permits+only+two+word+orders+mentioned+above.%0D%0AThus%2C+government+patterns+are+all-sufficient+for+language+description%0D%0Aand+significantly+differ+from+subcategorization+frames+introduced%0D%0Ain+the+generative+grammar+mainstream.%0D%0ATHE+MEANING+%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BCambria+Math%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E%E2%87%94%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BTimes+New+Roman%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E+TEXT+THEORY%3A+DEPENDENCY+TREES%0D%0AAnother+important+feature+of+the+MTT+is+the+use+of+its+dependency%0D%0Atrees%2C+for+description+of+syntactic+links+between+words+in+a+sentence.%0D%0AJust+the+set+of+these+links+forms+the+representation+of+a+sentence+at%0D%0Athe+syntactic+level+within+this+approach.%0D%0AFor+example%2C+the+Spanish+sentence+La+estudiante+mexicana+canta%0D%0Auna+canci%C3%B3n+can+be+represented+by+the+dependency+tree+shown+in%0D%0AFigure+II.2.+One+can+see+that+the+dependency+tree+significantly+differs%0D%0Afrom+the+constituency+tree+for+the+same+sentence+%28cf.+Figure%0D%0AII.1%29.%0D%0AUp+to+the+present%2C+the+proper+description+of+the+word+order+and%0D%0Aword+agreement+in+many+languages+including+Spanish+can+be+accomplished%0D%0Aeasier+by+means+of+the+MTT.+Moreover%2C+it+was+shown%0D%0Athat+in+many+languages+there+exist+disrupt+and+non-projective+concanta%0D%0Aestudiante+canci%C3%B3n%0D%0Ala+mexicana+una%0D%0AFIGURE+II.2.+Example+of+a+dependency+tree.%0D%0A50+COMPUTATIONAL+LINGUISTICS+AND+LINGUISTIC+MODELS%0D%0Astructions%2C+which+cannot+be+represented+through+constituency+trees%0D%0Aor+nested+structures%2C+but+dependency+trees+can+represent+them+easily.%0D%0AIn+fact%2C+dependency+trees+appeared+as+an+object+of+linguistic+research%0D%0Ain+the+works+of+Lucien+Tesni%C3%A8re%2C+in+1950%E2%80%99s.+Even+earlier%2C+dependencies%0D%0Abetween+words+were+informally+used+in+descriptions+of%0D%0Avarious+languages%2C+including+Spanish.+However%2C+just+the+MTT+has%0D%0Agiven+strict+definition+to+dependency+trees.+The+dependency+links%0D%0Awere+classified+for+surface+and+deep+syntactic+levels+separately.%0D%0AThey+were+also+theoretically+isolated+from+links+of+morphologic%0D%0Ainter-word+agreement+so+important+for+Spanish.%0D%0AWith+dependency+trees%2C+descriptions+of+the+relationships+between%0D%0Athe+words+constituting+a+sentence+and+of+the+order+of+these+words+in%0D%0Athe+sentence+were+separated+from+each+other.+Thus%2C+the+links+between%0D%0Awords+and+the+order+in+which+they+appear+in+a+sentence+were%0D%0Aproposed+to+be+investigated+apart%2C+and+relevant+problems+of+both%0D%0Aanalysis+and+synthesis+are+solved+now+separately.%0D%0AHence%2C+the+MTT+in+its+syntactic+aspect+can+be+called+dependency%0D%0Aapproach%2C+as+contrasted+to+the+constituency+approach+overviewed%0D%0Aabove.+In+the+dependency+approach%2C+there+is+no+problem+for+representing%0D%0Athe+structure+of+English+interrogative+sentences+%28cf.+page%0D%0A39%29.+Thus%2C+there+is+no+necessity+in+the+transformations+of+Chomskian%0D%0Atype.%0D%0ATo+barely+characterize+the+MTT+as+a+kind+of+dependency+approach%0D%0Ais+to+extremely+simplify+the+whole+picture.+Nevertheless%2C+this+book%0D%0Apresents+the+information+permitting+to+conceive+other+aspects+of+the%0D%0AMTT.%0D%0ATHE+MEANING+%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BCambria+Math%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E%E2%87%94%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BTimes+New+Roman%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E+TEXT+THEORY%3A+SEMANTIC+LINKS%0D%0AThe+dependency+approach+is+not+exclusively+syntactic.+The+links%0D%0Abetween+wordforms+at+the+surface+syntactic+level+determine+links%0D%0Abetween+corresponding+labeled+nodes+at+the+deep+syntactic+level%2C%0D%0Aand+after+some+deletions%2C+insertions%2C+and+inversions+imply+links+in%0D%0Athe+semantic+representation+of+the+same+sentence+or+a+set+of+senA%0D%0AHISTORICAL+OUTLINE%0D%0A51%0D%0Atences.+Hence%2C+this+approach+facilitates+the+transfer+from+syntactic%0D%0Arepresentations+to+a+semantic+one+and+vice+versa.%0D%0AAccording+to+the+MTT%2C+the+correlation+between+syntactic+and+semantic%0D%0Alinks+is+not+always+straightforward.+For+example%2C+some+auxiliary%0D%0Awords+in+a+sentence+%28e.g.%2C+auxiliary+verbs+and+some+prepositions%29%0D%0Aare+treated+as+surface+elements+and+disappear+at+the+deep+syntactic%0D%0Alevel.+For+example%2C+the+auxiliary+Spanish+verb+HABER+in+the%0D%0Aword+combination+han+pedido+disappears+from+the+semantic+representation%0D%0Aafter+having+been+used+to+determine+the+verb+tense+and%0D%0Amode.+At+the+same+time%2C+some+elements+absent+in+the+surface+representation%0D%0Aare+deduced%2C+or+restored%2C+from+the+context+and+thus+appear%0D%0Aexplicitly+at+the+deep+syntactic+level.+For+example%2C+given+the+surface%0D%0Asyntactic+dependency+tree+fragment%3A%0D%0Asu+%E2%86%90+hijo+%E2%86%92+Juan%2C%0D%0Athe+semantically+conditioned+element+NAME+is+inserted+at+the+deep%0D%0Asyntactic+level%2C+directly+ruling+the+personal+name%3A%0D%0Asu+%E2%86%90+hijo+%E2%86%92+NAME+%E2%86%92+Juan%0D%0ASpecial+rules+of+inter-level+correspondence+facilitate+the+transition%0D%0Ato+the+correct+semantic+representation+of+the+same+fragment.%0D%0AThe+MTT+provides+also+the+rules+of+transformation+of+some+words%0D%0Aand+word+combinations+to+other+words+and+combinations%2C+with+the%0D%0Afull+preservation+of+the+meaning.+For+example%2C+the+Spanish+sentence%0D%0AJuan+me+prest%C3%B3+ayuda+can+be+formally+transformed+to+Juan+me%0D%0Aayud%C3%B3+and+vice+versa+at+the+deep+syntactic+level.+Such+transformations%0D%0Aare+independent+of+those+possible+on+the+semantic+level%2C+where%0D%0Amathematical+logic+additionally+gives+quite+other+rules+of+meaningpreserving%0D%0Aoperations.%0D%0AWe+should+clarify+that+some+terms%2C+e.g.%2C+deep+structure+or+transformation%2C%0D%0Aare+by+accident+used+in+both+the+generative+and+the+MTT%0D%0Atradition%2C+but+in+completely+different+meanings.+Later+we+will+return%0D%0Ato+this+source+of+confusion.%0D%0A52+COMPUTATIONAL+LINGUISTICS+AND+LINGUISTIC+MODELS%0D%0AAll+these+features+will+be+explained+in+detail+later.+Now+it+is+important%0D%0Afor+us+only+to+claim+that+the+MTT+has+been+able+to+describe%0D%0Aany+natural+language+and+any+linguistic+level+in+it.%0D%0ACONCLUSIONS%0D%0AIn+the+twentieth+century%2C+syntax+was+in+the+center+of+the+linguistic%0D%0Aresearch%2C+and+the+approach+to+syntactic+issues+determined+the+structure%0D%0Aof+any+linguistic+theory.+There+are+two+major+approaches+to%0D%0Asyntax%3A+the+constituency%2C+or+phrase-structure%2C+approach%2C+and+the+dependency%0D%0Aapproach.+The+constituency+tradition+was+originated+by+N.%0D%0AChomsky+with+the+introduction+of+the+context-free+grammars%2C+and%0D%0Athe+most+recent+development+in+this+tradition+is+Head-driven+Phrase%0D%0AStructure+Grammar+theory.+The+dependency+approach+is+used+in+the%0D%0AMeaning+%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BCambria+Math%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E%E2%87%94%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BTimes+New+Roman%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E+Text+Theory+by+Igor+Mel%E2%80%99%C4%8Duk.+Both+approaches+are+applicable%0D%0Afor+describing+linguistic+phenomena+in+many+languages.%0D%0A53%0D%0AIII.+PRODUCTS+OF+COMPUTATIONAL+LINGUISTICS%3A%0D%0APRESENT+AND+PROSPECTIVE%0D%0AFOR+WHAT+PURPOSES+do+we+need+to+develop+computational+linguistics%3F%0D%0AWhat+practical+results+does+it+provide+for+society%3F+Before+we%0D%0Astart+discus-sing+the+methods+and+techniques+of+computational+linguistics%2C%0D%0Ait+is+worthwhile+giving+a+review+of+some+existing+practical%0D%0Aresults%2C+i.e.%2C+applications%2C+or+products%2C+of+this+discipline.+We+consider%0D%0Asuch+applications+in+a+very+broad+sense%2C+including+in+this+category%0D%0Aall+known+tasks+of+word+processing%2C+as+well+as+those+of+text%0D%0Aprocessing%2C+text+generation%2C+dialogue+in+a+natural+language%2C+and+language%0D%0Aunderstanding.%0D%0ASome+of+these+applications+already+provide+the+user+with+satisfactory%0D%0Asolutions+for+their+tasks%2C+especially+for+English%2C+while+other%0D%0Atasks+and+languages+have+been+under+continuous+research+in+recent%0D%0Adecades.%0D%0AOf+course%2C+some+extrapolations+of+the+current+trends+could+give%0D%0Acompletely+new+types+of+systems+and+new+solutions+to+the+current%0D%0Aproblems%2C+but+this+is+out+of+scope+of+this+book.%0D%0ACLASSIFICATION+OF+APPLIED+LINGUISTIC+SYSTEMS%0D%0AApplied+linguistic+systems+are+now+widely+used+in+business+and+scientific%0D%0Adomains+for+many+purposes.+Some+of+the+most+important%0D%0Aones+among+them+are+the+following%3A%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+Text+preparation%2C+or+text+editing%2C+in+a+broad+sense%2C+particularly%0D%0Aincluding+the+tasks+listed+below%3A%0D%0A%E2%80%93+Automatic+hyphenation+of+words+in+natural+language+texts%2C%0D%0A%E2%80%93+Spell+checking%2C+i.e.%2C+detection+and+correction+of+typographic%0D%0Aand+spelling+errors%2C%0D%0A54+COMPUTATIONAL+LINGUISTICS+AND+LINGUISTIC+MODELS%0D%0A%E2%80%93+Grammar+checking%2C+i.+e.%2C+detection+and+correction+of+grammatical%0D%0Aerrors%2C%0D%0A%E2%80%93+Style+checking%2C+i.+e.+detection+and+correction+of+stylistic+errors%2C%0D%0A%E2%80%93+Referencing+specific+words%2C+word+combinations%2C+and+semantic%0D%0Alinks+between+them%3B%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+Information+retrieval+in+scientific%2C+technical%2C+and+business+document%0D%0Adatabases%3B%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+Automatic+translation+from+one+natural+language+to+another%3B%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+Natural+language+interfaces+to+databases+and+other+systems%3B%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+Extraction+of+factual+data+from+business+or+scientific+texts%3B%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+Text+generation+from+pictures+and+formal+specifications%3B%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+Natural+language+understanding%3B%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+Optical+character+recognition%2C+speech+recognition%2C+etc.%0D%0AFor+the+purposes+of+this+book%2C+we+will+give+here+only+a+short%0D%0Asketch+of+each+application.+Later%2C+some+of+these+topics%2C+with+more%0D%0Adeep+explanations%2C+can+be+touched+upon+once+more.%0D%0AAUTOMATIC+HYPHENATION%0D%0AHyphenation+is+intended+for+the+proper+splitting+of+words+in+natural%0D%0Alanguage+texts.+When+a+word+occurring+at+the+end+of+a+line+is+too%0D%0Along+to+fit+on+that+line+within+the+accepted+margins%2C+a+part+of+it+is%0D%0Amoved+to+the+next+line.+The+word+is+thus+wrapped%2C+i.e.%2C+split+and%0D%0Apartially+transferred+to+the+next+line.%0D%0AThe+wrapping+can+be+done+only+at+specific+positions+within%0D%0Awords%2C+which+generally%2C+though+not+always%2C+are+syllable+boundaries.%0D%0AFor+example%2C+in+Spanish+one+can+split+re-ci-bo%2C+re-u-nir-se%2C+dia-blo%2C%0D%0Aca-rre-te-ra%2C+mu-cha-chas%2C+but+not+in+the+following+positions%3A%0D%0A*recib-o%2C+*di-ablo%2C+*car-retera%2C+*muc-hac-has.%0D%0APRODUCTS+OF+COMPUTATIONAL+LINGUISTICS%0D%0A55%0D%0AIn+this+way%2C+hyphenation+improves+the+outer+appearance+of+computer-%0D%0Aproduced+texts+through+adjusting+their+right+margins.+It+saves%0D%0Apaper+and+at+the+same+time+preserves+impression+of+smooth+reading%2C%0D%0Ajust+as+without+any+hyphenation.%0D%0AThe+majority+of+the+well-known+text+editors+are+supplied+now%0D%0Awith+hyphenation+tools.+For+example%2C+Microsoft+Word+has+the+menu%0D%0Aitem+Hyphenation.2%0D%0AUsually%2C+the+linguistic+information+taken+for+such+programs+is%0D%0Arather+limited.+It+should+be+known+which+letters+are+vowels+%28a%2C+e%2C+i%2C%0D%0Ao%2C+u+in+Spanish%29+or+consonants+%28b%2C+c%2C+d%2C+f%2C+g%2C+etc.%29%2C+and+what+letter%0D%0Acombinations+are+inseparable+%28such+as+consonants+pairs+ll%2C+rr%2C+ch+or%0D%0Adiphthongs+io%2C+ue%2C+ai+in+Spanish%29.%0D%0AHowever%2C+the+best+quality+of+hyphenation+could+require+more+detailed%0D%0Ainformation+about+each+word.+The+hyphenation+can+depend+on%0D%0Athe+so-called+morphemic+structure+of+the+word%2C+for+example%3A+sub-urba-%0D%0Ano%2C+but+su-bir%2C+or+even+on+the+origin+of+the+word%2C+for+example%3A%0D%0APe-llicer%2C+but+Shil-ler.+Only+a+dictionary-based+program+can+take%0D%0Ainto+account+all+such+considerations.+For+English%2C+just+dictionarybased%0D%0Aprograms+really+give+perfect+results%2C+while+for+Spanish+rather%0D%0Asimple+programs+are+usually+sufficient%2C+if+to+neglect+potentially+error-%0D%0Aprone+foreign+words+like+Shiller.%0D%0ASPELL+CHECKING%0D%0AThe+objective+of+spell+checking+is+the+detection+and+correction+of%0D%0Atypographic+and+orthographic+errors+in+the+text+at+the+level+of+word%0D%0Aoccurrence+considered+out+of+its+context.%0D%0ANobody+can+write+without+any+errors.+Even+people+well+acquainted%0D%0Awith+the+rules+of+language+can%2C+just+by+accident%2C+press+a%0D%0Awrong+key+on+the+keyboard+%28maybe+adjacent+to+the+correct+one%29+or%0D%0Amiss+out+a+letter.+Additionally%2C+when+typing%2C+one+sometimes+does%0D%0Anot+synchronize+properly+the+movements+of+the+hands+and+fingers.%0D%0AAll+such+errors+are+called+typos%2C+or+typographic+errors.+On+the+other%0D%0A2+Guiones+in+the+Spanish+version.%0D%0A56+COMPUTATIONAL+LINGUISTICS+AND+LINGUISTIC+MODELS%0D%0Ahand%2C+some+people+do+not+know+the+correct+spelling+of+some+words%2C%0D%0Aespecially+in+a+foreign+language.+Such+errors+are+called+spelling+errors.%0D%0AFirst%2C+a+spell+checker+merely+detects+the+strings+that+are+not+correct%0D%0Awords+in+a+given+natural+language.+It+is+supposed+that+most+of%0D%0Athe+orthographic+or+typographic+errors+lead+to+strings+that+are+impossible%0D%0Aas+separate+words+in+this+language.+Detecting+the+errors+that%0D%0Aconvert+by+accident+one+word+into+another+existing+word%2C+such+as%0D%0AEnglish+then+%E2%86%92+%3Fthan+or+Spanish+cazar+%E2%86%92+%3Fcasar%2C+supposes+a+task%0D%0Awhich+requires+much+more+powerful+tools.%0D%0AAfter+such+impossible+string+has+been+detected+and+highlighted+by%0D%0Athe+program%2C+the+user+can+correct+this+string+in+any+preferable+way%E2%80%94%0D%0Amanually+or+with+the+help+of+the+program.+For+example%2C+if+we+try+to%0D%0Ainsert+into+any+English+text+the+strings+3+*groop%2C+*greit%2C+or%0D%0A*misanderstand%2C+the+spell+checker+will+detect+the+error+and+stop+at%0D%0Athis+string%2C+highlighting+it+for+the+user.+Analogous+examples+in%0D%0ASpanish+can+be+*cai%C3%B3%2C+*systema%2C+*nesecitar.%0D%0AThe+functions+of+a+spell+checker+can+be+more+versatile.+The+program%0D%0Acan+also+propose+a+set+of+existing+words%2C+which+are+similar%0D%0Aenough+%28in+some+sense%29+to+the+given+corrupted+word%2C+and+the+user%0D%0Acan+then+choose+one+of+them+as+the+correct+version+of+the+word%2C%0D%0Awithout+re-typing+it+in+the+line.+In+the+previous+examples%2C+Microsoft%0D%0AWord%E2%80%99s+spell+checker+gives%2C+as+possible+candidates+for+replacement%0D%0Aof+the+string+cai%C3%B3%2C+the+existing+Spanish+words+shown+in+Figure+III.1.%0D%0AIn+most+cases%2C+especially+for+long+strings%2C+a+spell+checker+offers%0D%0Aonly+one+or+two+candidates+%28or+none%29.+For+example%2C+for+the+string%0D%0A*systema+it+offers+only+the+correct+Spanish+word+sistema.%0D%0AThe+programs+that+perform+operations+of+both+kinds+are+called+orthographic%0D%0Acorrectors%2C+while+in+English+they+are+usually+called+spell%0D%0Acheckers.+In+everyday+practice%2C+spell+checkers+are+considered+very%0D%0Ahelpful+and+are+used+by+millions+of+users+throughout+the+world.+The%0D%0Amajority+of+modern+text+editors+are+supplied+now+with+integrated%0D%0A3+In+all+cases%2C+an+initial+asterisk+marks+strings+containing+errors.%0D%0APRODUCTS+OF+COMPUTATIONAL+LINGUISTICS%0D%0A57%0D%0Aspell+checkers.+For+example%2C+Microsoft+Word+uses+many+spell%0D%0Acheckers%2C+a+specific+one+for+each+natural+language+used+in+the+text.%0D%0AThe+amount+of+linguistic+information+necessary+for+spell+checkers%0D%0Ais+much+greater+than+for+hyphenation.+A+simple+but+very+resourceconsuming%0D%0Aapproach+operates+with+a+list%2C+or+a+dictionary%2C+of+all+valid%0D%0Awords+in+a+specific+language.+It+is+necessary+to+have+also+a+criterion%0D%0Aof+similarity+of+words%2C+and+some+presuppositions+about+the+most%0D%0Acommon+typographic+and+spelling+errors.+A+deeper+penetration+into%0D%0Athe+correction+problems+requires+a+detailed+knowledge+of+morphology%2C%0D%0Asince+it+facilitates+the+creation+of+a+more+compact+dictionary%0D%0Athat+has+a+manageable+size.%0D%0ASpell+checkers+have+been+available+for+more+than+20+years%2C+but%0D%0Asome+quite+evident+tasks+of+correction+of+words%2C+even+taken+separately%2C%0D%0Ahave+not+been+yet+solved.+To+put+a+specific+example%2C+let+us%0D%0Aconsider+the+ungrammatical+string+*teached+in+an+English+text.+None%0D%0Aof+the+spell+checkers+we+have+tried+suggested+the+correct+form%0D%0Ataught.+In+an+analogous+way%2C+if+a+foreigner+inserts+into+a+Spanish%0D%0Atext+such+strings+as+*muestrar+or+*disponido%2C+the+Spanish+spell%0D%0Acheckers+we+have+tried+did+not+give+the+forms+mostrar+and+dispuesto%0D%0Aas+possible+corrections.%0D%0AFIGURE+III.1.+Alternatives+for+the+word+*cai%C3%B3.%0D%0A58+COMPUTATIONAL+LINGUISTICS+AND+LINGUISTIC+MODELS%0D%0AGRAMMAR+CHECKING%0D%0ADetection+and+correction+of+grammatical+errors+by+taking+into+account%0D%0Aadjacent+words+in+the+sentence+or+even+the+whole+sentence+are%0D%0Amuch+more+difficult+tasks+for+computational+linguists+and+software%0D%0Adevelopers+than+just+checking+orthography.%0D%0AGrammar+errors+are+those+violating%2C+for+example%2C+the+syntactic%0D%0Alaws+or+the+laws+related+to+the+structure+of+a+sentence.+In+Spanish%2C%0D%0Aone+of+these+laws+is+the+agreement+between+a+noun+and+an+adjective%0D%0Ain+gender+and+grammatical+number.+For+example%2C+in+the+combination%0D%0A*mujer+viejos+each+word+by+itself+does+exist+in+Spanish%2C+but%0D%0Atogether+they+form+a+syntactically+ill-formed+combination.+Another%0D%0Aexample+of+a+syntactic+agreement+is+the+agreement+between+the%0D%0Anoun+in+the+role+of+subject+and+the+main+verb%2C+in+number+and+person%0D%0A%28*t%C3%BA+tiene%29.%0D%0AThe+words+that+must+agree+can+be+located+in+quite+different+parts%0D%0Aof+the+sentence.+For+example%2C+it+is+rather+difficult+for+a+program+to%0D%0Afind+the+error+in+the+following+sentence%3A+*Las+mesas+de+madera+son%0D%0Amuy+largos.%0D%0AOther+types+of+grammatical+errors+include+incorrect+usage+of%0D%0Aprepositions%2C+like+in+the+phrases+*debajo+la+puerta%2C+or+*%C2%A1basta+con%0D%0Averla%21%2C+or+*casarse+a+Mar%C3%ADa.+Some+types+of+syntactic+errors+may+be%0D%0Anot+so+evident+even+for+a+native+speaker.%0D%0AIt+became+clear+long+ago+that+only+a+complete+syntactic+analysis%0D%0A%28parsing%29+of+a+text+could+provide+an+acceptable+solution+of+this+task.%0D%0ABecause+of+the+difficulty+of+such+parsing%2C+commercial+grammar%0D%0Acheckers+are+still+rather+primitive+and+rarely+give+the+user+useful%0D%0Aassistance+in+the+preparation+of+a+text.+The+Windows+Sources%2C+one+of%0D%0Athe+well-known+computer+journals%2C+noted%2C+in+May+1995%2C+that+the%0D%0Agrammar+checker+Grammatik+in+the+WordPerfect+text+editor%2C+perhaps%0D%0Athe+best+grammar+checker+in+the+world+at+that+time%2C+was+so+imperfect%0D%0Aand+disorienting%2C+that+%E2%80%9Cnobody+needs+a+program+that%E2%80%99s+wrong%0D%0Ain+more+cases+than+it%E2%80%99s+right.%E2%80%9D%0D%0AIn+the+last+few+years%2C+significant+improvements+have+been+made+in%0D%0Agrammar+checkers.+For+example%2C+the+grammar+checker+included+in%0D%0APRODUCTS+OF+COMPUTATIONAL+LINGUISTICS%0D%0A59%0D%0AMicrosoft+Word+is+helpful+but+still+very+far+from+perfection.%0D%0ASometimes%2C+rather+simple+operations+can+give+helpful+results+by%0D%0Adetecting+some+very+frequent+errors.+The+following+two+classes+of%0D%0Aerrors+specific+for+Spanish+language+can+be+mentioned+here%3A%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+Absence+of+agreement+between+an+article+and+the+succeeding%0D%0Anoun%2C+in+number+and+gender%2C+like+in+*la+gatos.+Such+errors+are%0D%0Aeasily+detectable+within+a+very+narrow+context%2C+i.e.%2C+of+two+adjacent%0D%0Awords.+For+this+task%2C+it+is+necessary+to+resort+to+the+grammatical%0D%0Acategories+for+Spanish+words.%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+Omission+of+the+written+accent+in+such+nouns+as+*articulo%2C%0D%0A*genero%2C+*termino.+Such+errors+cannot+be+detected+by+a+usual%0D%0Aspell+checker+taking+the+words+out+of+context%2C+since+they+convert%0D%0Aone+existing+word+to+another+existent+one%2C+namely%2C+to+a+personal%0D%0Aform+of+a+verb.+It+is+rather+easy+to+define+some+properties+of+immediate%0D%0Acontexts+for+nouns+that+never+occur+with+the+corresponding%0D%0Averbs%2C+e.g.%2C+the+presence+of+agreed+articles%2C+adjectives%2C+or+pronouns%0D%0A%5B38%5D.%0D%0AWe+can+see%2C+however%2C+that+such+simplistic+techniques+fail+in+too%0D%0Amany+cases.+For+example%2C+in+combinations+such+as+*las+pruebas+de%0D%0Aevaluaci%C3%B3n+numerosos%2C+the+disagreement+between+pruebas+and+numerosos%0D%0Acannot+be+detected+by+considering+only+the+nearest+context.%0D%0AWhat+is+worse%2C+a+program+based+on+such+a+simplistic+approach%0D%0Awould+too+frequently+give+false+alarms+where+there+is+no+error+in%0D%0Afact.+For+example%2C+in+the+correct+combination+las+pruebas+de%0D%0Aevaluaci%C3%B3n+numerosas%2C+such+a+simplistic+program+would+mention%0D%0Adisagreement+in+number+between+the+wordforms+evaluaci%C3%B3n+and%0D%0Anumerosas.%0D%0AIn+any+case%2C+since+the+author+of+the+text+is+the+only+person+that%0D%0Adefinitely+knows+what+he+or+she+meant+to+write%2C+the+final+decision%0D%0Amust+always+be+left+up+to+the+user%2C+whether+to+make+a+correction%0D%0Asuggested+by+the+grammar+checker+or+to+leave+the+text+as+it+was.%0D%0A60+COMPUTATIONAL+LINGUISTICS+AND+LINGUISTIC+MODELS%0D%0ASTYLE+CHECKING%0D%0AThe+stylistic+errors+are+those+violating+the+laws+of+use+of+correct%0D%0Awords+and+word+combinations+in+language%2C+in+general+or+in+a+given%0D%0Aliterary+genre.%0D%0AThis+application+is+the+nearest+in+its+tasks+to+normative+grammars%0D%0Aand+manuals+on+stylistics+in+the+printed%2C+oriented+to+humans%2C+form.%0D%0AThus%2C+style+checkers+play+a+didactic+and+prescriptive+role+for+authors%0D%0Aof+texts.%0D%0AFor+example%2C+you+are+not+recommended+to+use+any+vulgar+words%0D%0Aor+purely+colloquial+constructions+in+official+documents.+As+to+more%0D%0Aformal+properties+of+Spanish+texts%2C+their+sentences+should+not+normally%0D%0Acontain+ten+prepositions+de%2C+and+should+not+be+longer+than%2C+let%0D%0Aus+say%2C+twenty+lines.+With+respect+to+Spanish+lexicon%2C+it+is+not+recommended%0D%0Ato+use+the+English+words+parking+and+lobby+instead+of%0D%0Aestacionamiento+and+vest%C3%ADbulo%2C+or+to+use+the+Americanism+salvar+in%0D%0Athe+meaning+%E2%80%98to+save+in+memory%E2%80%99+instead+of+guardar.%0D%0AIn+the+Spanish+sentence+La+recolecci%C3%B3n+de+datos+en+tiempo+real+es%0D%0Arealizada+mediante+un+servidor%2C+the+words+in+boldface+contain+two%0D%0Astylistic+anomalies%3A+se+realiza+is+usually+better+than+es+realizada%2C%0D%0Aand+such+a+close+neighborhood+of+words+with+the+same+stem%2C+like%0D%0Areal+and+realizada%2C+is+unwanted.%0D%0AIn+the+Spanish+sentence+La+grabaci%C3%B3n%2C+reproducci%C3%B3n+y+simulaci%C3%B3n%0D%0Ade+datos+son+funciones+en+todos+los+sistemas+de+manipulaci%C3%B3n%0D%0Ade+informaci%C3%B3n%2C+the+frequency+of+words+with+the+suffix+-ci%C3%B3n+oversteps%0D%0Alimits+of+a+good+style.%0D%0AThe+style+checker+should+use+a+dictionary+of+words+supplied+with%0D%0Atheir+usage+marks%2C+synonyms%2C+information+on+proper+use+of+prepositions%2C%0D%0Acompatibility+with+other+words%2C+etc.+It+should+also+use+automatic%0D%0Aparsing%2C+which+can+detect+improper+syntactic+constructions.%0D%0AThere+exist+style+checkers+for+English+and+some+other+major+languages%2C%0D%0Abut+mainly+in+laboratory+versions.+Meanwhile+commercial%0D%0Astyle+checkers+are+usually+rather+primitive+in+their+functions.%0D%0AAs+a+very+primitive+way+to+assess+stylistic+properties+of+a+text%2C%0D%0Asome+commercial+style+checkers+calculate+the+average+length+of%0D%0APRODUCTS+OF+COMPUTATIONAL+LINGUISTICS%0D%0A61%0D%0Awords+in+the+text%2C+i.e.%2C+the+number+of+letters+in+them%3B+length+of+sentences%2C%0D%0Ai.e.%2C+the+number+of+words+in+them%3B+length+of+paragraphs%2C+i.e.%2C%0D%0Athe+number+of+words+and+sentences.+They+can+also+use+other+statistical%0D%0Acharacteristics+that+can+be+easily+calculated+as+a+combination+of%0D%0Athose+mentioned.%0D%0AThe+larger+the+average+length+of+a+word%2C+sentence+or+paragraph%2C%0D%0Athe+more+difficult+the+text+is+to+read%2C+according+to+those+simplest%0D%0Astylistic+assessments.+It+is+easy+also+to+count+the+occurrences+of%0D%0Aprepositions+de+or+nouns+ending+in+-ci%C3%B3n+in+Spanish+sentences.%0D%0ASuch+style+checkers+can+only+tell+the+user+that+the+text+is+too+complicated%0D%0A%28awkward%29+for+the+chosen+genre%2C+but+usually+cannot+give%0D%0Aany+specific+suggestions+as+to+how+to+improve+the+text.%0D%0AThe+assessment+of+deeper+and+more+interesting+stylistic+properties%2C%0D%0Aconnected+with+the+lexicon+and+the+syntactic+constructions%2C+is%0D%0Astill+considered+a+task+for+the+future.%0D%0AREFERENCES+TO+WORDS+AND+WORD+COMBINATIONS%0D%0AThe+references+from+any+specific+word+give+access+to+the+set+of%0D%0Awords+semantically+related+to+the+former%2C+or+to+words%2C+which+can%0D%0Aform+combinations+with+the+former+in+a+text.+This+is+a+very+important%0D%0Aapplication.+Nowadays+it+is+performed+with+linguistic+tools+of%0D%0Atwo+different+kinds%3A+autonomous+on-line+dictionaries+and+built-in%0D%0Adictionaries+of+synonyms.%0D%0AWithin+typical+text+processors%2C+the+synonymy+dictionaries+are+usually%0D%0Acalled+thesauri.+Later+we+will+see+that+this+name+corresponds%0D%0Apoorly+to+the+synonymy+dictionaries%2C+since+genuine+thesauri+usually%0D%0Ainclude+much+more+information%2C+for+example%2C+references+to+generic%0D%0Awords%2C+i.e.%2C+names+of+superclasses%2C+and+to+specific+words%2C+i.e.%2C+names%0D%0Aof+subclasses.%0D%0AReferences+to+various+words+or+word+combinations+of+a+given%0D%0Anatural+language+have+the+objective+to+help+the+author+of+a+text+to%0D%0Acreate+more+correct%2C+flexible%2C+and+idiomatic+texts.+Indeed%2C+only+an%0D%0Ainsignificant+part+of+all+thinkable+word+combinations+are+really+permitted%0D%0Ain+a+language%2C+so+that+the+knowledge+of+the+permitted+and%0D%0A62+COMPUTATIONAL+LINGUISTICS+AND+LINGUISTIC+MODELS%0D%0Acommon+combinations+is+a+very+important+part+of+linguistic+competence%0D%0Aof+any+author.+For+example%2C+a+foreigner+might+want+to+know%0D%0Aall+the+verbs+commonly+used+with+the+Spanish+noun+ayuda%2C+such+as%0D%0Aprestar+or+pedir%2C+or+with+the+noun+atenci%C3%B3n%2C+such+as+dedicar+or%0D%0Aprestar%2C+in+order+to+avoid+combinations+like+pagar+atenci%C3%B3n%2C+which%0D%0Ais+a+word-by-word+translation+of+the+English+combination+to+pay%0D%0Aattention.+Special+language-dependent+dictionaries+are+necessary+for%0D%0Athis+purpose+%28see%2C+for+example%2C+Figure+III.2%29.%0D%0AWithin+such+systems%2C+various+complex+operations+are+needed%2C%0D%0Asuch+as+automated+reduction+of+the+entered+words+to+their+dictionary%0D%0Aforms%2C+search+of+relevant+words+in+the+corresponding+linguistic+database%2C%0D%0Aand+displaying+all+of+them+in+a+form+convenient+to+a+non-%0D%0AFIGURE+III.2.+CrossLexica%E2%84%A2%2C+a+dictionary+of+word+combinations.%0D%0APRODUCTS+OF+COMPUTATIONAL+LINGUISTICS%0D%0A63%0D%0Alinguist+user.+These+operations+are+versatile+and+include+both+morphologic%0D%0Aand+syntactic+issues+%5B37%5D.%0D%0AAnother+example+of+a+dictionary+that+provides+a+number+of+semantic%0D%0Arelations+between+different+lexemes+is+EuroWordNet+%5B55%5D%2C+a%0D%0Ahuge+lexical+resource+reflecting+diverse+semantic+links+between+lexemes%0D%0Aof+several+European+languages.%0D%0AThe+ideological+basis+of+EuroWordNet+is+the+English+dictionary%0D%0AWordNet+%5B41%5D.+English+nouns%2C+verbs%2C+adjectives%2C+and+adverbs+were%0D%0Adivided+into+synonymy+groups%2C+or+synsets.+Several+semantic+relations%0D%0Awere+established+between+synsets%3A+antonymy+%28reference+to+the%0D%0A%E2%80%9Copposite%E2%80%9D+meaning%29%2C+hyponymy+%28references+to+the+subclasses%29%2C+hyperonymy%0D%0A%28reference+to+the+superclass%29%2C+meronymy+%28references+to+the%0D%0Aparts%29%2C+holonymy+%28reference+to+the+whole%29%2C+etc.+Semantic+links+were%0D%0Aestablished+also+between+synsets+of+different+parts+of+speech.%0D%0AThe+classification+hierarchy+for+nouns+is+especially+well+developed%0D%0Awithin+WordNet.+The+number+of+hierarchical+levels+is+in+average%0D%0A6+to+7%2C+sometimes+reaching+15.+The+upper+levels+of+the+hierarchy%0D%0Aform+the+ontology%2C+i.e.%2C+a+presupposed+scheme+of+human+knowledge.%0D%0AIn+essence%2C+EuroWordNet+is+a+transportation+of+the+WordNet+hierarchy%0D%0Ato+several+other+European+languages%2C+in+particular+to+Spanish.%0D%0AThe+upper+levels+of+ontology+were+obtained+by+direct+translation%0D%0Afrom+English%2C+while+for+the+other+levels%2C+additional+lexicographic%0D%0Aresearch+turned+out+to+be+necessary.+In+this+way%2C+not+only+links+between%0D%0Asynsets+within+any+involved+language+were+determined%2C+but%0D%0Aalso+links+between+synsets+of+a+number+of+different+languages.%0D%0AThe+efforts+invested+to+the+WordNet+and+EuroWordNet+were+tremendous.%0D%0AApproximately+25%C2%B4000+words+were+elaborated+in+several%0D%0Alanguages.%0D%0AINFORMATION+RETRIEVAL%0D%0AInformation+retrieval+systems+%28IRS%29+are+designed+to+search+for+relevant%0D%0Ainformation+in+large+documentary+databases.+This+information%0D%0Acan+be+of+various+kinds%2C+with+the+queries+ranging+from+%E2%80%9CFind+all+the%0D%0Adocuments+containing+the+word+conjugar%E2%80%9D+to+%E2%80%9CFind+information+on%0D%0A64+COMPUTATIONAL+LINGUISTICS+AND+LINGUISTIC+MODELS%0D%0Athe+conjugation+of+Spanish+verbs%E2%80%9D.+Accordingly%2C+various+systems%0D%0Ause+different+methods+of+search.%0D%0AThe+earliest+IRSs+were+developed+to+search+for+scientific+articles%0D%0Aon+a+specific+topic.+Usually%2C+the+scientists+supply+their+papers+with+a%0D%0Aset+of+keywords%2C+i.e.%2C+the+terms+they+consider+most+important+and%0D%0Arelevant+for+the+topic+of+the+paper.+For+example%2C+espa%C3%B1ol%2C+verbos%2C%0D%0Asubjuntivo+might+be+the+keyword+set+of+the+article+%E2%80%9COn+means+of%0D%0Aexpressing+unreal+conditions%E2%80%9D+in+a+Spanish+scientific+journal.%0D%0AThese+sets+of+keywords+are+attached+to+the+document+in+the+bibliographic%0D%0Adatabase+of+the+IRS%2C+being+physically+kept+together+with%0D%0Athe+corresponding+documents+or+separately+from+them.+In+the+simplest%0D%0Acase%2C+the+query+should+explicitly+contain+one+or+more+of+such%0D%0Akeywords+as+the+condition+on+what+the+article+can+be+found+and+retrieved%0D%0Afrom+the+database.+Here+is+an+example+of+a+query%3A+%E2%80%9CFind+the%0D%0Adocuments+on+verbos+and+espa%C3%B1ol%E2%80%9D.+In+a+more+elaborate+system%2C+a%0D%0Aquery+can+be+a+longer+logical+expression+with+the+operators+and%2C+or%2C%0D%0Anot%2C+e.g.%3A+%E2%80%9CFind+the+documents+on+%28sustantivos+or+adjetivos%29+and%0D%0A%28not+ingl%C3%A9s%29%E2%80%9D.%0D%0ANowadays%2C+a+simple+but+powerful+approach+to+the+format+of+the%0D%0Aquery+is+becoming+popular+in+IRSs+for+non-professional+users%3A+the%0D%0Aquery+is+still+a+set+of+words%3B+the+system+first+tries+to+find+the+documents%0D%0Acontaining+all+of+these+words%2C+then+all+but+one%2C+etc.%2C+and+finally%0D%0Athose+containing+only+one+of+the+words.+Thus%2C+the+set+of+keywords%0D%0Ais+considered+in+a+step-by-step+transition+from+conjunction+to%0D%0Adisjunction+of+their+occurrences.+The+results+are+ordered+by+degree%0D%0Aof+relevance%2C+which+can+be+measured+by+the+number+of+relevant%0D%0Akeywords+found+in+the+document.+The+documents+containing+more%0D%0Akeywords+are+presented+to+the+user+first.%0D%0AIn+some+systems+the+user+can+manually+set+a+threshold+for+the%0D%0Anumber+of+the+keywords+present+in+the+documents%2C+i.e.%2C+to+search+for%0D%0A%E2%80%9Cat+least+m+of+n%E2%80%9D+keywords.+With+m+%3D+n%2C+often+too+few+documents%2C+if%0D%0Aany%2C+are+retrieved+and+many+relevant+documents+are+not+found%3B+with%0D%0Am+%3D+1%2C+too+many+unrelated+ones+are+retrieved+because+of+a+high+rate%0D%0Aof+false+alarms.%0D%0APRODUCTS+OF+COMPUTATIONAL+LINGUISTICS%0D%0A65%0D%0AUsually%2C+recall+and+precision+are+considered+the+main+characteristics%0D%0Aof+IRSs.+Recall+is+the+ratio+of+the+number+of+relevant+documents%0D%0Afound+divided+by+the+total+number+of+relevant+documents+in+the+database.%0D%0APrecision+is+the+ratio+of+the+number+of+relevant+documents%0D%0Adivided+by+the+total+number+of+documents+found.%0D%0AIt+is+easy+to+see+that+these+characteristics+are+contradictory+in+the%0D%0Ageneral+case%2C+i.e.+the+greater+one+of+them+the+lesser+another%2C+so+that%0D%0Ait+is+necessary+to+keep+a+proper+balance+between+them.%0D%0AIn+a+specialized+IRS%2C+there+usually+exists+an+automated+indexing%0D%0Asubsystem%2C+which+works+before+the+searches+are+executed.+Given+a%0D%0Aset+of+keywords%2C+it+adds%2C+using+the+or+operator%2C+other+related+keywords%2C%0D%0Abased+on+a+hierarchical+system+of+the+scientific%2C+technical+or%0D%0Abusiness+terms.+This+kind+of+hierarchical+systems+is+usually+called%0D%0Athesaurus+in+the+literature+on+IRSs+and+it+can+be+an+integral+part+of%0D%0Athe+IRS.+For+instance%2C+given+the+query+%E2%80%9CFind+the+documents+on+conjugaci%C3%B3n%2C%E2%80%9D%0D%0Asuch+a+system+could+add+the+word+morfolog%C3%ADa+to+both+the%0D%0Aquery+and+the+set+of+keywords+in+the+example+above%2C+and+hence+find%0D%0Athe+requested+article+in+this+way.%0D%0AThus%2C+a+sufficiently+sophisticated+IRS+first+enriches+the+sets+of%0D%0Akeywords+given+in+the+query%2C+and+then+compares+this+set+with+the%0D%0Apreviously+enriched+sets+of+keywords+attached+to+each+document+in%0D%0Athe+database.+Such+comparison+is+performed+according+to+any+criteria%0D%0Amentioned+above.+After+the+enrichment%2C+the+average+recall+of+the%0D%0AIRS+system+is+usually+increased.%0D%0ARecently%2C+systems+have+been+created+that+can+automatically+build%0D%0Asets+of+keywords+given+just+the+full+text+of+the+document.+Such+systems%0D%0Ado+not+require+the+authors+of+the+documents+to+specifically%0D%0Aprovide+the+keywords.+Some+of+the+modern+Internet+search+engines%0D%0Aare+essentially+based+on+this+idea.%0D%0AThree+decades+ago%2C+the+problem+of+automatic+extraction+of+keywords%0D%0Awas+called+automatic+abstracting.+The+problem+is+not+simple%2C%0D%0Aeven+when+it+is+solved+by+purely+statistical+methods.+Indeed%2C+the%0D%0Amost+frequent+words+in+any+business%2C+scientific+or+technical+texts+are%0D%0Apurely+auxiliary%2C+like+prepositions+or+auxiliary+verbs.+They+do+not%0D%0Areflect+the+essence+of+the+text+and+are+not+usually+taken+for+abstract66%0D%0ACOMPUTATIONAL+LINGUISTICS+AND+LINGUISTIC+MODELS%0D%0Aing.+However%2C+the+border+between+auxiliary+and+meaningful+words%0D%0Acannot+be+strictly+defined.+Moreover%2C+there+exist+many+term-forming%0D%0Awords+like+system%2C+device%2C+etc.%2C+which+can+seldom+be+used+for+information%0D%0Aretrieval+because+their+meaning+is+too+general.+Therefore%2C%0D%0Athey+are+not+useful+for+abstracts.%0D%0AThe+multiplicity+of+IRSs+is+considered+now+as+an+important+class%0D%0Aof+the+applied+software+and%2C+specifically%2C+of+applied+linguistic+systems.%0D%0AThe+period+when+they+used+only+individual+words+as+keys+has%0D%0Apassed.+Developers+now+try+to+use+word+combinations+and+phrases%2C%0D%0Aas+well+as+more+complicated+strategies+of+search.+The+limiting+factors%0D%0Afor+the+more+sophisticated+techniques+turned+out+to+be+the+same%0D%0Aas+those+for+grammar+and+style+checkers%3A+the+absence+of+complete%0D%0Agrammatical+and+semantic+analysis+of+the+text+of+documents.+The%0D%0Amethods+used+now+even+in+the+most+sophisticated+Internet+search%0D%0Aengines+are+not+efficient+for+accurate+information+retrieval.+This%0D%0Aleads+to+a+high+level+of+information+noise%2C+i.e.%2C+delivering+of+irrelevant%0D%0Adocuments%2C+as+well+as+to+the+frequent+missing+of+relevant+ones.%0D%0AThe+results+of+retrieval+operations+directly+depend+on+the+quality%0D%0Aand+performance+of+the+indexing+and+comparing+subsystems%2C+on+the%0D%0Acontent+of+the+terminological+system+or+the+thesaurus%2C+and+other+data%0D%0Aand+knowledge+used+by+the+system.+Obviously%2C+the+main+tools+and%0D%0Adata+sets+used+by+an+IRS+have+the+linguistic+nature.%0D%0ATOPICAL+SUMMARIZATION%0D%0AIn+many+cases%2C+it+is+necessary+to+automatically+determine+what+a%0D%0Agiven+document+is+about.+This+information+is+used+to+classify+the%0D%0Adocuments+by+their+main+topics%2C+to+deliver+by+Internet+the+documents%0D%0Aon+a+specific+subject+to+the+users%2C+to+automatically+index+the%0D%0Adocuments+in+an+IRS%2C+to+quickly+orient+people+in+a+large+set+of%0D%0Adocuments%2C+and+for+other+purposes.%0D%0ASuch+a+task+can+be+viewed+as+a+special+kind+of+summarization%3A+to%0D%0Aconvey+the+contents+of+the+document+in+a+shorter+form.+While+in%0D%0A%E2%80%9Cnormal%E2%80%9D+summarization+by+the+contents+the+main+ideas+of+the%0D%0APRODUCTS+OF+COMPUTATIONAL+LINGUISTICS%0D%0A67%0D%0Adocument+are+considered%2C+here+we+consider+only+the+topics+mentioned%0D%0Ain+the+document%2C+hence+the+term+topical+summarization.%0D%0AAs+an+example%2C+let+us+consider+the+system+Clasitex%E2%84%A2+that+automatically%0D%0Adetermines+the+main+topics+of+a+document.+A+variant+of+its%0D%0Aimplementation%2C+Classifier%E2%84%A2%2C+was+developed+in+the+Center+of+Computing%0D%0AResearch%2C+National+Polytechnic+Institute+at+Mexico+City+%5B46%5D%0D%0A%28see+Figure+III.3%29.+It+uses+two+kinds+of+linguistic+information%3A%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+First%2C+it+neutralizes+morphologic+variations+in+order+to+reduce+any%0D%0Aword+found+in+the+text+to+its+standard+%28i.e.%2C+dictionary%29+form%2C+e.g.%2C%0D%0Aoraciones+%E2%86%92+oraci%C3%B3n%2C+reg%C3%ADmenes+%E2%86%92+r%C3%A9gimen%2C+ling%C3%BC%C3%ADsticas+%E2%86%92%0D%0Aling%C3%BC%C3%ADstico%2C+propuesto+%E2%86%92+proponer.%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+Second%2C+it+puts+into+action+a+large+dictionary+of+thesaurus+type%2C%0D%0Awhich+gives%2C+for+each+word+in+its+standard+form%2C+its+correspond-%0D%0AFIGURE+III.3.+Classifier+program+determines+the+main+topics+of+a%0D%0Adocument.%0D%0A68+COMPUTATIONAL+LINGUISTICS+AND+LINGUISTIC+MODELS%0D%0Aing+position+in+a+pre-defined+hierarchy+of+topics.+For+example%2C%0D%0Athe+word+oraci%C3%B3n+belongs+to+the+topic+ling%C3%BC%C3%ADstica%2C+which+belongs%0D%0Ain+turn+to+the+topic+ciencias+sociales%2C+which+in+its+turn+belongs+to%0D%0Athe+topic+ciencia.%0D%0AThen+the+program+counts+how+many+times+each+one+of+these+topics%0D%0Aoccurred+in+the+document.+Roughly+speaking%2C+the+topic+mentioned%0D%0Amost+frequently+is+considered+the+main+topic+of+the+document.%0D%0AActually%2C+the+topics+in+the+dictionary+have+different+weights+of%0D%0Aimportance+%5B43%2C+45%5D%2C+so+that+the+main+topic+is+the+one+with+the+greatest%0D%0Atotal+weight+in+the+document.%0D%0AApplied+linguistics+can+improve+this+method+in+many+possible%0D%0Aways.+For+example%2C+in+its+current+version%2C+Clasitex+does+not+count%0D%0Aany+pronouns+found+in+the+text%2C+since+it+is+not+obvious+what+object+a%0D%0Apersonal+pronoun+such+as+%C3%A9l+can+refer+to.%0D%0AWhat+is+more%2C+many+Spanish+sentences+contain+zero+subjects%2C+i.e.%0D%0Aimplicit+references+to+some+nouns.+This+becomes+obvious+in+English%0D%0Atranslation%3A+Hay+un+libro.+Es+muy+interesante+%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BCambria+Math%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E%E2%87%92%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BTimes+New+Roman%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E+There+is+a+book.+It%0D%0Ais+very+interesting+%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BCambria+Math%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E%E2%87%92%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BTimes+New+Roman%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E+El+libro+es+muy+interesante.+Thus%2C+each+Spanish%0D%0Asentence+without+any+subject+is+implicitly+an+occurrence+of+the%0D%0Acorresponding+word%2C+which+is+not+taken+into+account+by+Clasitex%2C+so%0D%0Athat+the+gathered+statictics+is+not+completely+correct.%0D%0AAnother+system%2C+TextAnalyst%EF%9B%9B%2C+for+determining+the+main+topics%0D%0Aof+the+document+and+the+relationships+between+words+in+the+document%0D%0Awas+developed+by+MicroSystems%2C+in+Russia+%28see+Figure+III.4%29.%0D%0AThis+system+is+not+dictionary-based%2C+though+it+does+have+a+small%0D%0Adictionary+of+stop-words+%28these+are+prepositions%2C+articles%2C+etc.%2C+and%0D%0Athey+should+not+be+processed+as+meaningful+words%29.%0D%0AThis+system+reveals+the+relationships+between+words.+Words+are%0D%0Aconsidered+related+to+each+other+if+they+co-occurred+closely+enough%0D%0Ain+the+text%2C+e.g.%2C+in+the+same+sentence.+The+program+builds+a+network%0D%0Aof+the+relationships+between+words.+Figure+III.4+shows+the+most+important%0D%0Awords+found+by+TextAnalyst+in+the+early+draft+of+this+book%2C%0D%0Aand+the+network+of+their+relationships.%0D%0APRODUCTS+OF+COMPUTATIONAL+LINGUISTICS%0D%0A69%0D%0AAs+in+Clasitex%2C+the+degree+of+importance+of+a+word%2C+or+its+weight%2C%0D%0Ais+determined+in+terms+of+its+frequency%2C+and+the+relationships+between%0D%0Awords+are+used+to+mutually+increase+the+weights.+The+words%0D%0Aclosely+related+to+many+of+the+important+words+in+the+text+are+also%0D%0Aconsidered+important.%0D%0AIn+TextAnalyst%2C+the+list+of+the+important+words+is+used+for+the+following%0D%0Atasks%3A%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+Compression+of+text+by+eliminating+the+sentences+or+paragraphs%0D%0Athat+contain+the+minimal+number+of+important+words%2C+until+the%0D%0Asize+of+the+text+reaches+the+threshold+selected+by+the+user%2C%0D%0AFIGURE+III.4.+TextAnalyst+program+reveals+the+relationships%0D%0Abetween+words.%0D%0A70+COMPUTATIONAL+LINGUISTICS+AND+LINGUISTIC+MODELS%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+Building+hypertext+by+constructing+mutual+references+between+the%0D%0Amost+important+words+and+from+the+important+words+to+others+to%0D%0Awhich+they+are+supposedly+related.%0D%0AThe+TextAnalyst+technology+is+based+on+a+special+type+of+a+dynamic%0D%0Aneural+network+algorithm.+Since+the+Clasitex+program+is%0D%0Abased+on+a+large+dictionary%2C+it+is+a+knowledge-based+program%2C%0D%0Awhereas+TextAnalyst+is+not.%0D%0AAUTOMATIC+TRANSLATION%0D%0ATranslation+from+one+natural+language+to+another+is+a+very+important%0D%0Atask.+The+amount+of+business+and+scientific+texts+in+the+world+is%0D%0Agrowing+rapidly%2C+and+many+countries+are+very+productive+in+scientific%0D%0Aand+business+domains%2C+publishing+numerous+books+and+articles%0D%0Ain+their+own+languages.+With+the+growth+of+international+contacts%0D%0Aand+collaboration%2C+the+need+for+translation+of+legal+contracts%2C+technical%0D%0Adocumentation%2C+instructions%2C+advertisements%2C+and+other+texts%0D%0Aused+in+the+everyday+life+of+millions+of+people+has+become+a+matter%0D%0Aof+vital+importance.%0D%0AThe+first+programs+for+automatic%2C+or+machine%2C+translation+were%0D%0Adeveloped+more+than+40+years+ago.+At+first%2C+there+existed+a+hope+that%0D%0Atexts+could+be+translated+word+by+word%2C+so+that+the+only+problem%0D%0Awould+be+to+create+a+dictionary+of+pairs+of+words%3A+a+word+in+one+language%0D%0Aand+its+equivalent+in+the+other.+However%2C+that+hope+died+just%0D%0Aafter+the+very+first+experiments.%0D%0AThen+the+ambitious+goal+was+formulated+to+create+programs+which%0D%0Acould+understand+deeply+the+meaning+of+an+arbitrary+text+in+the%0D%0Asource+language%2C+record+it+in+some+universal+intermediate+language%2C%0D%0Aand+then+reformulate+this+meaning+in+the+target+language+with+the%0D%0Agreatest+possible+accuracy.+It+was+supposed+that+neither+manual+preediting%0D%0Aof+the+source+text+nor+manual+post-editing+of+the+target+text%0D%0Awould+be+necessary.+This+goal+proved+to+be+tremendously+difficult%0D%0Ato+achieve%2C+and+has+still+not+been+satisfactorily+accomplished+in+any%0D%0Abut+the+narrowest+special+cases.%0D%0APRODUCTS+OF+COMPUTATIONAL+LINGUISTICS%0D%0A71%0D%0AAt+present+there+is+a+lot+of+translation+software%2C+ranging+from+very%0D%0Alarge+international+projects+being+developed+by+several+institutes+or%0D%0Aeven+several+corporations+in+close+cooperation%2C+to+simple+automatic%0D%0Adictionaries%2C+and+from+laboratory+experiments+to+commercial+products.%0D%0AHowever%2C+the+quality+of+the+translations%2C+even+for+large+systems%0D%0Adeveloped+by+the+best+scientists%2C+is+usually+conspicuously%0D%0Alower+than+the+quality+of+manual+human+translation.%0D%0AAs+for+commercial+translation+software%2C+the+quality+of+translation%0D%0Ait+generates+is+still+rather+low.+A+commercial+translator+can+be+used%0D%0Ato+allow+people+quite+unfamiliar+with+the+original+language+of+the%0D%0Adocument+to+understand+its+main+idea.+Such+programs+can+help+in%0D%0Amanual+translation+of+texts.+However%2C+post-editing+of+the+results%2C+to%0D%0Abring+them+to+the+degree+of+quality+sufficient+for+publication%2C+often%0D%0Atakes+more+time+than+just+manual+translation+made+by+a+person+who%0D%0Aknows+both+languages+well+enough.+4+Commercial+translators+are%0D%0Aquite+good+for+the+texts+of+very+specific%2C+narrow+genres%2C+such+as%0D%0Aweather+reports.+They+are+also+acceptable+for+translation+of+legal%0D%0Acontracts%2C+at+least+for+their+formal+parts%2C+but+the+paragraphs+specifying%0D%0Athe+very+subject+of+the+contract+may+be+somewhat+distorted.%0D%0ATo+give+the+reader+an+impression+of+what+kind+of+errors+a+translation%0D%0Aprogram+can+make%2C+it+is+enough+to+mention+a+well-known+example%0D%0Aof+the+mistranslation+performed+by+one+of+the+earliest+systems%0D%0Ain+1960s.+It+translated+the+text+from+Bible+The+spirit+is+willing%2C+but%0D%0Athe+flesh+is+weak+%28Matt.+26%3A41%29+into+Russian+and+then+back+into+English.%0D%0AThe+English+sentence+then+turned+out+to+be+The+vodka+is+strong%2C%0D%0Abut+the+meat+is+rotten+%5B34%5D.+Even+today%2C+audiences+at+lectures+on%0D%0Aautomatic+translation+are+entertained+by+similar+examples+from%0D%0Amodern+translation+systems.%0D%0ATwo+other+examples+are+from+our+own+experience+with+the+popular%0D%0Acommercial+translation+package+PowerTranslator+by+Globalink%2C%0D%0Aone+of+the+best+in+the+market.+The+header+of+an+English+document%0D%0APlans+is+translated+into+Spanish+as+the+verb+Planifica%2C+while+the+cor-%0D%0A4+According+to+the+tests+conducted+by+the+publishing+house+of+the+Russian+edition%0D%0Aof+PC+World.%0D%0A72+COMPUTATIONAL+LINGUISTICS+AND+LINGUISTIC+MODELS%0D%0Arect+translation+is+the+Spanish+noun+Planes+%28see+Figure+III.5%29.+The%0D%0ASpanish+phrase+el+papel+de+Francia+en+la+guerra+is+translated+as+the%0D%0Apaper+of+France+in+the+war%2C+while+the+correct+translation+is+the+role%0D%0Aof+France+in+the+war.+There+are+thousands+of+such+examples%2C+so+that%0D%0Anearly+any+automatically+translated+document+is+full+of+them+and%0D%0Ashould+be+reedited.%0D%0AActually%2C+the+quality+of+translation+made+by+a+given+program+is%0D%0Anot+the+same+in+the+two+directions%2C+say%2C+from+English+to+Spanish+and%0D%0Afrom+Spanish+to+English.+Since+automatic+analysis+of+the+text+is+usually%0D%0Aa+more+difficult+task+than+generation+of+text%2C+the+translation%0D%0Afrom+a+language+that+is+studied+and+described+better+has+generally%0D%0Ahigher+quality+than+translation+into+this+language.+Thus%2C+the+elaboration%0D%0Aof+Spanish+grammars+and+dictionaries+can+improve+the+quality%0D%0Aof+the+translation+from+Spanish+into+English.%0D%0AOne+difficult+problem+in+automatic+translation+is+the+word+sense%0D%0Adisambiguation.+In+any+bilingual+dictionary%2C+for+many+source+words%2C%0D%0Adozens+of+words+in+the+target+language+are+listed+as+translations%2C%0D%0Ae.g.%2C+for+simple+Spanish+word+gato%3A+cat%2C+moneybag%2C+jack%2C+sneak+thief%2C%0D%0Atrigger%2C+outdoor+market%2C+hot-water+bottle%2C+blunder%2C+etc.+Which+one%0D%0Ashould+the+program+choose+in+any+specific+case%3F+This+problem+has%0D%0AFIGURE+III.5.+One+of+commercial+translators.%0D%0APRODUCTS+OF+COMPUTATIONAL+LINGUISTICS%0D%0A73%0D%0Aproven+to+be+extremely+difficult+to+solve.+Deep+linguistic+analysis+of%0D%0Athe+given+text+is+necessary+to+make+the+correct+choice%2C+on+the+base%0D%0Aon+the+meaning+of+the+surrounding+words%2C+the+text%2C+as+a+whole%2C+and%0D%0Aperhaps+some+extralinguistic+information+%5B42%5D.%0D%0AAnother%2C+often+more+difficult+problem+of+automatic+translation+is%0D%0Arestoring+the+information+that+is+contained+in+the+source+text+implicitly%2C%0D%0Abut+which+must+be+expressed+explicitly+in+the+target+text.+For%0D%0Aexample%2C+given+the+Spanish+text+Jos%C3%A9+le+dio+a+Mar%C3%ADa+un+libro.+Es%0D%0Ainteresante%2C+which+translation+of+the+second+sentence+is+correct%3A+He%0D%0Ais+interesting%2C+or+She+is+interesting%2C+or+It+is+interesting%2C+or+This+is%0D%0Ainteresting%3F+Given+the+English+phrase+computer+shop%2C+which+Spanish%0D%0Atranslation+is+correct%3A+tienda+de+computadora+or+tienda+de+computadoras%3F%0D%0ACompare+this+with+computer+memory.+Is+they+are+beautiful%0D%0Atranslated+as+son+hermosos+or+son+hermosas%3F+Is+as+you+wish%0D%0Atranslated+as+como+quiere%2C+como+quieres%2C+como+quieren%2C+or+como%0D%0Aquer%C3%A9is%3F5+Again%2C+deep+linguistic+analysis+and+knowledge%2C+rather+than%0D%0Asimple+word-by-word+translation%2C+is+necessary+to+solve+such+problems.%0D%0AGreat+effort+is+devoted+in+the+world+to+improve+the+quality+of%0D%0Atranslation.+As+an+example+of+successful+research%2C+the+results+of+the%0D%0ATranslation+group+of+Information+Science+Institute+at+University+of%0D%0ASouth+California+can+be+mentioned+%5B53%5D.+This+research+is+based+on%0D%0Athe+use+of+statistical+techniques+for+lexical+ambiguity+resolution.%0D%0AAnother+successful+team+working+on+automatic+translation+is+that%0D%0Aheaded+by+Yu.+Apresian+in+Russia+%5B34%5D.+Their+research+is+conducted%0D%0Ain+the+framework+of+the+Meaning+%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BCambria+Math%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E%E2%87%94%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BTimes+New+Roman%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E+Text+model.%0D%0ANATURAL+LANGUAGE+INTERFACE%0D%0AThe+task+performed+by+a+natural+language+interface+to+a+database+is%0D%0Ato+understand+questions+entered+by+a+user+in+natural+language+and+to%0D%0Aprovide+answers%E2%80%94usually+in+natural+language%2C+but+sometimes+as+a%0D%0A5+In+the+variant+of+Spanish+spoken+in+Spain.+Consider+also+como+vosotros+quer%C3%A9is%0D%0Avs.+como+vosotras+quer%C3%A9is.%0D%0A74+COMPUTATIONAL+LINGUISTICS+AND+LINGUISTIC+MODELS%0D%0Aformatted+output.+Typically%2C+the+entered+queries%2C+or+questions%2C+concern%0D%0Asome+facts+about+data+contained+in+a+database.%0D%0ASince+each+database+is+to+some+degree+specialized%2C+the+language%0D%0Aof+the+queries+and+the+set+of+words+used+in+them+are+usually+very%0D%0Alimited.+Hence%2C+the+linguistic+task+of+grammatical+and+semantic%0D%0Aanalysis+is+much+simpler+than+for+other+tasks+related+to+natural+language%2C%0D%0Asuch+as+translation.%0D%0AThere+are+some+quite+successful+systems+with+natural+language+interfaces%0D%0Athat+are+able+to+understand+a+very+specialized+sublanguage%0D%0Aquite+well.+Other+systems%2C+with+other%2C+usually+less+specialized+sublanguages%2C%0D%0Aare+much+less+successful.+Therefore%2C+this+problem+does%0D%0Anot+have%2C+at+least+thus+far%2C+a+universal+solution%2C+most+of+the+solutions%0D%0Abeing+constructed+ad+hoc+for+each+specific+system.%0D%0AThe+developers+of+the+most+popular+database+management+systems%0D%0Ausually+supply+their+product+with+a+formal+query-constructing%0D%0Alanguage%2C+such+as+SQL.+To+learn+such+a+language+is+not+too+difficult%2C%0D%0Aand+this+diminishes+the+need+for+a+natural+language+interface.+We%0D%0Aare+not+aware+of+any+existing+commercial+interface+system+that%0D%0Aworks+with+a+truly+unlimited+natural+language.%0D%0ANevertheless%2C+the+task+of+creating+such+an+interface+seems+very+attractive%0D%0Afor+many+research+teams+all+over+the+world.+Especially+useful%0D%0Acould+be+natural+language+interfaces+with+speech+recognition%0D%0Acapabilities%2C+which+also+would+allow+the+user+to+make+queries+or%0D%0Agive+commands+over+a+telephone+line.%0D%0AThe+task+of+development+of+natural+language+interfaces%2C+though%0D%0Abeing+less+demanding+to+such+branches+of+linguistics+as+morphology%0D%0Aor+syntax%2C+are+very+demanding+to+such+%E2%80%9Cdeeper%E2%80%9D+branches+of+linguistics%0D%0Aas+semantics%2C+pragmatics%2C+and+theory+of+discourse.%0D%0AThe+specific+problem+of+the+interface+systems+is+that+they+work%0D%0Anot+with+a+narrative%2C+a+monologue%2C+but+with+a+dialogue%2C+a+set+of%0D%0Ashort%2C+incomplete%2C+interleaving+remarks.+For+example%2C+in+the+following%0D%0Adialogue%3A%0D%0AUser%3A+Are+there+wide+high-resolution+matrix+printers+in+the+store%3F%0D%0ASystem%3A+No%2C+there+are+no+such+printers+in+the+store.%0D%0AUser%3A+And+narrow%3F%0D%0APRODUCTS+OF+COMPUTATIONAL+LINGUISTICS%0D%0A75%0D%0Ait+is+difficult+for+the+computer+to+understand+the+meaning+of+the+last%0D%0Aremark.%0D%0AA+rather+detailed+linguistic+analysis+is+necessary+to+re-formulate%0D%0Athis+user%E2%80%99s+question+to+Are+there+narrow+high-resolution+matrix%0D%0Aprinters+in+the+store%3F+In+many+cases%2C+the+only+way+for+the+computer%0D%0Ato+understand+such+elliptical+questions+is+to+build+a+model+of+the%0D%0Auser%E2%80%99s+current+goals%2C+its+knowledge%2C+and+interests%2C+and+then+try+to%0D%0Aguess+what+the+computer+itself+would+be+asking+at+this+point+of+the%0D%0Adialogue+if+it+were+the+user%2C+and+in+what+words+it+would+formulate%0D%0Asuch+a+question.+This+idea+can+be+called+analysis+through+synthesis.%0D%0AEXTRACTION+OF+FACTUAL+DATA+FROM+TEXTS%0D%0AExtraction+of+factual+data+from+texts+is+the+task+of+automatic+generation%0D%0Aof+elements+of+a+factographic+database%2C+such+as+fields%2C+or+parameters%2C%0D%0Abased+on+on-line+texts.+Often+the+flows+of+the+current+news%0D%0Afrom+the+Internet+or+from+an+information+agency+are+used+as+the%0D%0Asource+of+information+for+such+systems%2C+and+the+parameters+of+interest%0D%0Acan+be+the+demand+for+a+specific+type+of+a+product+in+various%0D%0Aregions%2C+the+prices+of+specific+types+of+products%2C+events+involving+a%0D%0Aparticular+person+or+company%2C+opinions+about+a+specific+issue+or+a%0D%0Apolitical+party%2C+etc.%0D%0AThe+decision-making+officials+in+business+and+politics+are+usually%0D%0Atoo+busy+to+read+and+comprehend+all+the+relevant+news+in+their%0D%0Aavailable+time%2C+so+that+they+often+have+to+hire+many+news+summarizers%0D%0Aand+readers+or+even+to+address+to+a+special+information+agency.%0D%0AThis+is+very+expensive%2C+and+even+in+this+case+the+important+relationships%0D%0Abetween+the+facts+may+be+lost%2C+since+each+news+summarizer%0D%0Atypically+has+very+limited+knowledge+of+the+subject+matter.+A+fully%0D%0Aeffective+automatic+system+could+not+only+extract+the+relevant+facts%0D%0Amuch+faster%2C+but+also+combine+them%2C+classify+them%2C+and+investigate%0D%0Atheir+interrelationships.%0D%0AThere+are+several+laboratory+systems+of+that+type+for+business+applications%2C%0D%0Ae.g.%2C+a+system+that+helps+to+explore+news+on+Dow+Jones%0D%0Aindex%2C+investments%2C+and+company+merge+and+acquisition+projects.%0D%0A76+COMPUTATIONAL+LINGUISTICS+AND+LINGUISTIC+MODELS%0D%0ADue+to+the+great+difficulties+of+this+task%2C+only+very+large+commercial%0D%0Acorporations+can+afford+nowadays+the+research+on+the+factual+data%0D%0Aextraction+problem%2C+or+merely+buy+the+results+of+such+research.%0D%0AThis+kind+of+problem+is+also+interesting+from+the+scientific+and%0D%0Atechnical+point+of+view.+It+remains+very+topical%2C+and+its+solution+is%0D%0Astill+to+be+found+in+the+future.+We+are+not+aware+of+any+such+research%0D%0Ain+the+world+targeted+to+the+Spanish+language+so+far.%0D%0ATEXT+GENERATION%0D%0AThe+generation+of+texts+from+pictures+and+formal+specifications+is+a%0D%0Acomparatively+new+field%3B+it+arose+about+ten+years+ago.+Some+useful%0D%0Aapplications+of+this+task+have+been+found+in+recent+years.+Among%0D%0Athem+are+multimedia+systems+that+require+a+text-generating+subsystem%0D%0Ato+illustrate+the+pictures+through+textual+explanations.+These%0D%0Asubsystems+produce+coherent+texts%2C+starting+from+the+features+of+the%0D%0Apictures.%0D%0AAnother+very+important+application+of+systems+of+this+kind+is+the%0D%0Ageneration+of+formal+specifications+in+text+form+from+quite+formal%0D%0Atechnical+drawings.%0D%0AFor+example%2C+compilation+of+a+patent+formula+for+a+new+device%2C%0D%0Aoften+many+pages+long%2C+is+a+boring%2C+time-consuming%2C+and+errorprone%0D%0Atask+for+a+human.+This+task+is+much+more+suitable+for+a+machine.%0D%0AA+specific+type+of+such+a+system+is+a+multilingual+text+generating%0D%0Asystem.+In+many+cases%2C+it+is+necessary+to+generate+descriptions+and%0D%0Ainstructions+for+a+new+device+in+several+languages%2C+or+in+as+many%0D%0Alanguages+as+possible.%0D%0ADue+to+the+problems+discussed+in+the+section+on+translation%2C+the%0D%0Aquality+of+automatic+translation+of+a+manually+compiled+text+is+often%0D%0Avery+low.%0D%0ABetter+results+can+be+achieved+by+automatic+generation+of+the+required%0D%0Atext+in+each+language+independently%2C+from+the+technical%0D%0APRODUCTS+OF+COMPUTATIONAL+LINGUISTICS%0D%0A77%0D%0Adrawings+and+specifications+or+from+a+text+in+a+specific+formal+language%0D%0Asimilar+to+a+programming+language.%0D%0AText+generating+systems+have%2C+in+general%2C+half+of+the+linguistic%0D%0Aproblems+of+a+translation+system%2C+including+all+of+the+linguistic%0D%0Aproblems+connected+with+the+grammar+and+lexicon+of+the+target+language.%0D%0AThis+is+still+a+vast+set+of+linguistic+information%2C+which+is+currently%0D%0Aavailable+in+adequate+detail+for+only+a+few+very+narrow+subject%0D%0Aareas.%0D%0ASYSTEMS+OF+LANGUAGE+UNDERSTANDING%0D%0ANatural+language+understanding+systems+are+the+most+general+and%0D%0Acomplex+systems+involving+natural+language+processing.+Such+systems%0D%0Aare+universal+in+the+sense+that+they+can+perform+nearly+all+the%0D%0Atasks+of+other+language-related+systems%2C+such+as+grammar+and+style%0D%0Achecking%2C+information+retrieval%2C+automatic+translation%2C+natural+language%0D%0Ainterface%2C+extraction+of+factual+data+from+texts%2C+text+generation%2C%0D%0Aand+so+forth.%0D%0AFor+example%2C+automatic+translation+can+be+implemented+as+a+text%0D%0Aunderstanding+system%2C+which+understands+the+text+in+the+source+language%0D%0Aand+then+generates+a+precise+description+of+the+learned+information%0D%0Ain+the+target+language.%0D%0AHence%2C+creation+of+a+text+understanding+system+is+the+most+challenging%0D%0Atask+for+the+joint+efforts+of+computational+linguistics+and%0D%0Aartificial+intelligence.%0D%0ATo+be+more+precise%2C+the+natural+language+processing+module+is%0D%0Aonly+one+part+of+such+a+system.+Most+activities+related+to+logical%0D%0Areasoning+and+understanding+proper+are+concentrated+in+another+its%0D%0Apart%E2%80%94a+reasoning+module.+These+two+modules%2C+however%2C+are+closely%0D%0Ainterrelated+and+they+should+work+in+tight+cooperation.%0D%0AThe+linguistic+subsystem+is+usually+bi-directional%2C+i.e.%2C+it+can+both%0D%0A%E2%80%9Cunderstand%2C%E2%80%9D+or+analyze%2C+the+input+texts+or+queries%2C+and+produce%2C+or%0D%0Agenerate%2C+another+text+as+the+answer.+In+other+words%2C+this+subsystem%0D%0Atransforms+a+human+utterance+into+an+internal%2C+or+semantic%2C+representation%0D%0Acomprehensible+to+the+reasoning+subsystem%2C+produces+a%0D%0A78+COMPUTATIONAL+LINGUISTICS+AND+LINGUISTIC+MODELS%0D%0Aresponse+in+its+own+internal+format%2C+and+then+transforms+the+response%0D%0Ainto+a+textual+answer.%0D%0AIn+different+systems%2C+the+reasoning+subsystem+can+be+called+the%0D%0Aknowledge-based+reasoning+engine%2C+the+problem+solver%2C+the+expert%0D%0Asystem%2C+or+something+else%2C+depending+on+the+specific+functions+of%0D%0Athe+whole+system.+Its+role+in+the+whole+system+of+natural+language%0D%0Aunderstanding+is+always+very+important.%0D%0AHalf+a+century+ago%2C+Alan+Turing+suggested+that+the+principal+test%0D%0Aof+intelligence+for+a+computer+would+be+its+ability+to+conduct+an%0D%0Aintelligent+dialogue%2C+making+reasonable+solutions%2C+giving+advice%2C+or%0D%0Ajust+presenting+the+relevant+information+during+the+conversation.%0D%0AThis+great+goal+has+not+been+achieved+thus+far%2C+but+research+in+this%0D%0Adirection+has+been+conducted+over+the+past+30+years+by+specialists+in%0D%0Aartificial+intelligence+and+computational+linguistics.%0D%0AIn+order+to+repeat%2C+the+full+power+of+linguistic+science+and+the+full%0D%0Arange+of+linguistic+data+and+knowledge+are+necessary+to+develop%0D%0Awhat+we+can+call+a+true+language+understanding+system.%0D%0ARELATED+SYSTEMS%0D%0AThere+are+other+types+of+applications+that+are+not+usually+considered%0D%0Asystems+of+computational+linguistics+proper%2C+but+rely+heavily+on+linguistic%0D%0Amethods+to+accomplish+their+tasks.+Of+these+we+will+mention%0D%0Ahere+two%2C+both+related+to+pattern+recognition.%0D%0AOptical+character+recognition+systems+recognize+the+graphemes%2C%0D%0Ai.e.%2C+letters%2C+numbers%2C+and+punctuation+marks%2C+in+a+point-by-point%0D%0Aimage+of+an+arbitrary+text+printed+on+paper%2C+and+convert+them+to+the%0D%0Acorresponding+ASCII+codes.+The+graphemes+can+be+in+any+font%2C+typeface%0D%0Aor+size%3B+the+background+of+the+paper+can+contain+some+dots+and%0D%0Aspots.+An+example+of+what+the+computer+sees+is+given+in%0D%0AFigure+III.6.%0D%0AA+human+being+easily+reads+the+following+text+Reglas+de+interpretaci%C3%B3n%0D%0Asem%C3%A1ntica%3A+because+he+or%0D%0Ashe+understands+the+meaning+of+the+words.+However%2C+without+understanding%0D%0Athe+meaning+it+is+not+possible+to+recognize%2C+say%2C+the+first%0D%0APRODUCTS+OF+COMPUTATIONAL+LINGUISTICS%0D%0A79%0D%0Aletter+of+the+last+string+%28is+it+a%2C+s+or+g%3F%29%2C+or+the+first+letter%28s%29+of+the%0D%0Asecond+line+%28is+it+r%2C+i+or+m%3F%29.%0D%0AThe+first+letters+of+the+second+line+are+shown+separately+in%0D%0AFigure+III.7.+One+who+does+not+know+what+the+whole+word+means%2C%0D%0Acannot+even+say+for+sure+that+this+picture+represents+any+letters.%0D%0AHowever%2C+one+can+easily+read+precisely+the+same+image%2C+shown%0D%0AFIGURE+III.6.+The+image+of+a+text%2C+as+the+computer+sees+it.%0D%0AFIGURE+III.7.+Several+letters+of+the+same+text%2C+as+the+computer%0D%0Asees+them.%0D%0A80+COMPUTATIONAL+LINGUISTICS+AND+LINGUISTIC+MODELS%0D%0Aabove%2C+of+the+same+letters+in+their+complete+context.+Hence%2C+it+is+obvious%0D%0Athat+the+task+of+optical+character+recognition+cannot+be+solved%0D%0Aonly+by+the+methods+of+image+recognition%2C+without+linguistic+information.%0D%0AThe+image+recognition+proper+is+beyond+the+competence+of+computational%0D%0Alinguistics.+However%2C+after+the+recognition+of+an+image%0D%0Aeven+of+much+higher+quality+than+the+one+shown+in+Figure+III.6%2C%0D%0Asome+peculiar+errors+can+still+appear+in+the+textual+representation+of%0D%0Athe+image.+They+can+be+fixed+by+the+operations+similar+to+those+of+a%0D%0Aspell+checker.+Such+a+specialized+spell+checker+should+know+the%0D%0Amost+frequent+errors+of+recognition.+For+example%2C+the+lower-case%0D%0Aletter+l+is+very+similar+to+the+figure+1%2C+the+letter+n+is+frequently+recognized%0D%0Aas+the+pair+ii%2C+while+the+m+can+be+recognized+as+iii+or+rn.%0D%0AVice+versa%2C+the+digraphs+in%2C+rn+and+ni+are+frequently+recognized+as%0D%0Am%2C+and+so+forth.%0D%0AMost+such+errors+can+be+corrected+without+human+intervention%2C+on%0D%0Athe+base+of+linguistic+knowledge.+In+the+simplest+case%2C+such+knowledge%0D%0Ais+just+a+dictionary+of+words+existing+in+the+language.+However%2C%0D%0Ain+some+cases+a+deeper+linguistic+analysis+is+necessary+for+disambiguation.%0D%0AFor+example%2C+only+full+parsing+of+the+context+sentence%0D%0Acan+allow+the+program+to+decide+whether+the+picture+recognized+as%0D%0A*danios+actually+represents+the+existing+Spanish+words+darnos+or%0D%0Adamos.%0D%0AA+much+more+challenging+task+than+recognition+of+printed+texts+is%0D%0Ahandwriting+recognition.+It+is+translation+into+ASCII+form+of+the+texts%0D%0Awritten+by+hand+with+a+pen+on+paper+or+on+the+surface+of+a+special%0D%0Acomputer+device%2C+or+directly+with+a+mouse+on+the+computer+screen.%0D%0AHowever%2C+the+main+types+of+problem+and+the+methods+of+solution+for%0D%0Athis+task+are+nearly+the+same+as+for+printed+texts%2C+at+least+in+their%0D%0Alinguistic+aspect.%0D%0ASpeech+recognition+is+another+type+of+recognition+task+employing%0D%0Alinguistic+methods.+A+speech+recognition+system+recognizes+specific%0D%0Asounds+in+the+flow+of+a+speech+of+a+human+and+then+converts+them%0D%0Ainto+ASCII+codes+of+the+corresponding+letters.+The+task+of+recognition%0D%0Aitself+belongs+both+to+pattern+recognition+and+to+phonology%2C+the%0D%0APRODUCTS+OF+COMPUTATIONAL+LINGUISTICS%0D%0A81%0D%0Ascience+bordering+on+linguistics%2C+acoustics%2C+and+physiology%2C+which%0D%0Ainvestigates+the+sounds+used+in+speech.%0D%0AThe+difficulties+in+the+task+of+speech+recognition+are+very+similar%0D%0Aor+quite+the+same+as+in+optical+character+recognition%3A+mutilated+patterns%2C%0D%0Afused+patterns%2C+disjoint+parts+of+a+pattern%2C+lost+parts+of+the+pattern%2C%0D%0Anoise+superimposing+the+pattern.+This+leads+to+even+a+much%0D%0Alarger+number+of+incorrectly+recognized+letters+than+with+optical%0D%0Acharacter+recognition%2C+and+application+of+linguistic+methods%2C+generally%0D%0Ain+the+same+manner%2C+is+even+more+important+for+this+task.%0D%0ACONCLUSIONS%0D%0AA+short+review+of+applied+linguistic+systems+has+shown+that+only%0D%0Avery+simple+tasks+like+hyphenation+or+simple+spell+checking+can+be%0D%0Asolved+on+a+modest+linguistic+basis.+All+the+other+systems+should%0D%0Aemploy+relatively+deep+linguistic+knowledge%3A+dictionaries%2C+morphologic%0D%0Aand+syntactic+analyzers%2C+and+in+some+cases+deep+semantic%0D%0Aknowledge+and+reasoning.+What+is+more%2C+nearly+all+of+the+discussed%0D%0Atasks%2C+even+spell+checking%2C+have+to+employ+very+deep+analysis+to+be%0D%0Asolved+with+an+accuracy+approaching+100%25.+It+was+also+shown+that%0D%0Amost+of+the+language+processing+tasks+could+be+considered+as+special%0D%0Acases+of+the+general+task+of+language+understanding%2C+one+of+the%0D%0Aultimate+goals+of+computational+linguistics+and+artificial+intelligence.%0D%0A%0D%0A83%0D%0AIV.+LANGUAGE+AS+A+MEANING+%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BCambria+Math%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E%E2%87%94%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BTimes+New+Roman%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E+TEXT%0D%0ATRANSFORMER%0D%0AIN+THIS+CHAPTER%2C+we+will+return+to+linguistics%2C+to+make+a+review+of%0D%0Aseveral+viewpoints+on+natural+language%2C+and+to+select+one+of+them+as%0D%0Athe+base+for+further+studies.+The+components+of+the+selected+approach%0D%0Awill+be+defined%2C+i.e.%2C+text+and+meaning.+Then+some+conceptual%0D%0Aproperties+of+the+linguistic+transformations+will+be+described%0D%0Aand+an+example+of+these+transformations+will+be+given.%0D%0APOSSIBLE+POINTS+OF+VIEW+ON+NATURAL+LANGUAGE%0D%0AOne+could+try+to+define+natural+language+in+one+of+the+following%0D%0Aways%3A%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+The+principal+means+for+expressing+human+thoughts%3B%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+The+principal+means+for+text+generation%3B%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+The+principal+means+of+human+communication.%0D%0AThe+first+definition%E2%80%94%E2%80%9Cthe+principal+means+for+expressing+human%0D%0Athoughts%E2%80%9D%E2%80%94touches+upon+the+expressive+function+of+language.+Indeed%2C%0D%0Asome+features+of+the+outer+world+are+reflected+in+the+human%0D%0Abrain+and+are+evidently+processed+by+it%2C+and+this+processing+is+just%0D%0Athe+human+thought.+However%2C+we+do+not+have+any+real+evidence+that%0D%0Ahuman+beings+directly+use+words+of+a+specific+natural+language+in%0D%0Athe+process+of+thinking.+Modes+of+thinking+other+than+linguistic+ones%0D%0Aare+also+known.+For+example%2C+mathematicians+with+different+native%0D%0Alanguages+can+have+the+same+ideas+about+an+abstract+subject%2C+though%0D%0Athey+express+these+thoughts+in+quite+different+words.+In+addition%2C%0D%0Athere+are+kinds+of+human+thoughts%E2%80%94like+operations+with+musical+or%0D%0Avisual+images%E2%80%94that+cannot+be+directly+reduced+to+words.%0D%0A84+COMPUTATIONAL+LINGUISTICS+AND+LINGUISTIC+MODELS%0D%0AAs+to+the+second+definition%E2%80%94%E2%80%9Cthe+principal+means+for+text+generation%E2%80%9D%E2%80%94%0D%0Athere+is+no+doubt+that+the+flow+of+utterances%2C+or+texts%2C+is+a%0D%0Avery+important+result+of+functioning+of+natural+language.%0D%0AHowever%2C+communication+includes+not+only+generation+%28speaking%29%2C%0D%0Abut+also+understanding+of+utterances.+This+definition+also+ignores%0D%0Athe+starting+point+of+text+generation%2C+which+is+probably+the%0D%0Atarget+point+of+understanding.+Generation+cannot+exist+without+this%0D%0Astarting+point%2C+which+is+contents+of+the+target+utterance+or+the+text+in%0D%0Athe+whole.+We+can+call+these+contents+meaning.%0D%0AAs+to+the+third+definition%E2%80%94%E2%80%9Cthe+principal+means+of+human+communication%2C%E2%80%9D%E2%80%94%0D%0Awe+can+readily+agree+that+the+communicative+function%0D%0Ais+the+main+function+of+natural+language.%0D%0AClearly%2C+only+persons+living+in+contact+with+society+really+need+a%0D%0Alanguage+for+efficient+communication.+This+definition+is+perhaps%0D%0Acorrect%2C+but+it+does+not+touch+upon+two+main+aspects+of+communication%0D%0Ain+natural+language%2C+namely%2C+speaking+and+understanding%2C+and%0D%0Athus+it+does+not+try+to+define+these+aspects%2C+separately+and+in+their%0D%0Ainteraction.%0D%0AThis+is+a+text+that+represents+the%0D%0Ameaning+shown+in+the+right+part+of+the%0D%0Apicture.+This+is+a+text+that+represents+the%0D%0Ameaning+shown+in+the+right+part+of+the%0D%0Apicture.+This+is+a+text+that+represents+the%0D%0Ameaning+shown+in+the+right+part+of+the%0D%0Apicture.+This+is+a+text+that+represents+the%0D%0Ameaning+shown+in+the+right+part+of+the%0D%0Apicture.+This+is+a+text+that+represents+the%0D%0Ameaning+shown+in+the+right+part+of+the%0D%0Apicture.+This+is+a+text+that+represents+the%0D%0Ameaning+shown+in+the+right+part+of+the%0D%0Apicture.+This+is+a+text+that+represents+the%0D%0Ameaning+shown+in+the+right+part+of+the%0D%0Apicture.+This+is+a+text+that+represents+the%0D%0Ameaning+shown+in+the+right+part+of+the%0D%0Apicture.+This+is+a+text+that+represents+the%0D%0Ameaning+shown+in+the+right+part+of+the%0D%0Apicture.+This+is+a+text+that+represents+the%0D%0Ai+h+i+h+ih+fh%0D%0ALanguage%0D%0AText+%28speech%29%0D%0AMeaning+Meaning%0D%0A........Text+Text.......%0D%0ABrain+1%0D%0ABrain+2%0D%0AFIGURE+IV.1.+The+role+of+language+in+human+communication.%0D%0ALANGUAGE+AS+A+MEANING+%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BCambria+Math%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E%E2%87%94%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BTimes+New+Roman%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E+TEXT+TRANSFORMER%0D%0A85%0D%0AThus%2C+these+definitions+are+not+sufficient+for+our+purposes.+A+better%0D%0Adefinition+should+touch+upon+all+useful+components+of+the+ones%0D%0Agiven+above%2C+such+as+text%2C+meaning%2C+generation%2C+and+understanding.%0D%0ASuch+definition+will+be+given+in+the+next+section.%0D%0ALANGUAGE+AS+A+BI-DIRECTIONAL+TRANSFORMER%0D%0AThe+main+purpose+of+human+communication+is+transferring+some%0D%0Ainformation%E2%80%94let+us+call+it+Meaning6%E2%80%94from+one+person+to+the+other.%0D%0AHowever%2C+the+direct+transferring+of+thoughts+is+not+possible.%0D%0AThus%2C+people+have+to+use+some+special+physical+representation+of%0D%0Atheir+thoughts%2C+let+us+call+it+Text.7+Then%2C+language+is+a+tool+to+transform%0D%0Aone+of+these+representations+to+another%2C+i.e.+to+transform+Meanings%0D%0Ato+words+when+speaking%2C+and+the+words+to+their+Meaning+when%0D%0Alistening+%28see+Figure+IV.1%29.%0D%0A6+We+use+capitalization+to+distinguish+the+terms+Meaning+and+Text+in+their+specific%0D%0Asense+used+in+the+Meaning+%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BCambria+Math%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E%E2%87%94%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BTimes+New+Roman%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E+Text+Theory+from+the+conventional+usage+of%0D%0Athese+words.%0D%0A7+For+the+sake+of+the+argument%2C+here+we+consider+speech%2C+as+well+as+written+text%2C%0D%0Ato+be+a+kind+of+Text.%0D%0AMeaning+Meaning%0D%0ALanguage%0D%0ALanguage%0D%0AThis+is+a+text+that+represents+the%0D%0Ameaning+shown+in+the+right+part+of+the%0D%0Apicture.+This+is+a+text+that+represents+the%0D%0Ameaning+shown+in+the+right+part+of+the%0D%0Apicture.+This+is+a+text+that+represents+the%0D%0Ameaning+shown+in+the+right+part+of+the%0D%0Apicture.+This+is+a+text+that+represents+the%0D%0Ameaning+shown+in+the+right+part+of+the%0D%0Apicture.+This+is+a+text+that+represents+the%0D%0Ameaning+shown+in+the+right+part+of+the%0D%0Apicture.+This+is+a+text+that+represents+the%0D%0Ameaning+shown+in+the+right+part+of+the%0D%0Apicture.+This+is+a+text+that+represents+the%0D%0Ameaning+shown+in+the+right+part+of+the%0D%0Apicture.+This+is+a+text+that+represents+the%0D%0Ameaning+shown+in+the+right+part+of+the%0D%0Apicture.+This+is+a+text+that+represents+the%0D%0Ameaning+shown+in+the+right+part+of+the%0D%0AText%0D%0AFIGURE+IV.2.+Language+functions+like+encoder+%2F+decoder+in+a%0D%0Acommunication+channel.%0D%0A86+COMPUTATIONAL+LINGUISTICS+AND+LINGUISTIC+MODELS%0D%0AIt+is+important+to+realize+that+the+communicating+persons+use+the%0D%0Asame+language%2C+which+is+their+common+knowledge%2C+and+each+of%0D%0Athem+has+a+copy+of+it+in+the+brain.%0D%0AIf+we+compare+this+situation+with+transferring+the+information%0D%0Aover+a+communication+channel%2C+such+as+a+computer+network%2C+the%0D%0Arole+of+language+is+encoding+the+information+at+the+transmitting+end%0D%0Aand+then+decoding+it+at+the+receiving+end.8+Again%2C+here+we+deal+with%0D%0Atwo+copies+of+the+same+encoder%2Fdecoder+%28see+Figure+IV.2%29.%0D%0AThus%2C+we+naturally+came+to+the+definition+of+natural+language+as+a%0D%0Atransformer+of+Meanings+to+Texts%2C+and%2C+in+the+opposite+direction%2C%0D%0Afrom+Texts+to+Meanings+%28see+Figure+IV.3%29.%0D%0AThis+transformer+is+supposed+to+reside+in+human+brain.+By+transformation%0D%0Awe+mean+some+form+of+translation%2C+so+that+both+the+Text%0D%0Aand+the+corresponding+Meaning+contain+the+same+information.+What%0D%0Awe+specifically+mean+by+these+two+concepts%2C+Text+and+Meaning%2C+will%0D%0Abe+discussed+in+detail+later.%0D%0ABeing+originally+expressed+in+an+explicit+form+by+Igor+Mel%E2%80%99%C4%8Duk%2C%0D%0Athis+definition+is+shared+nowadays+by+many+other+linguists.+It+permits%0D%0Ato+recognize+how+computer+programs+can+simulate%2C+or+model%2C%0D%0Athe+capacity+of+the+human+brain+to+transform+the+information+from%0D%0Aone+of+these+representations+into+another.%0D%0A8+It+is+not+surprising+that+later+in+this+book%2C+levels+of+information+representation%0D%0Awill+appear%2C+in+direct+analogy+with+the+modern+computer+network+protocols.%0D%0AThis+is+a+text+that+represents+the%0D%0Ameaning+shown+in+the+right+part+of+the%0D%0Apicture.+This+is+a+text+that+represents+the%0D%0Ameaning+shown+in+the+right+part+of+the%0D%0Apicture.+This+is+a+text+that+represents+the%0D%0Ameaning+shown+in+the+right+part+of+the%0D%0Apicture.+This+is+a+text+that+represents+the%0D%0Ameaning+shown+in+the+right+part+of+the%0D%0Apicture.+This+is+a+text+that+represents+the%0D%0Ameaning+shown+in+the+right+part+of+the%0D%0Apicture.+This+is+a+text+that+represents+the%0D%0Ameaning+shown+in+the+right+part+of+the%0D%0Apicture.+This+is+a+text+that+represents+the%0D%0Ameaning+shown+in+the+right+part+of+the%0D%0Apicture.+This+is+a+text+that+represents+the%0D%0Ameaning+shown+in+the+right+part+of+the%0D%0Apicture.+This+is+a+text+that+represents+the%0D%0Ameaning+shown+in+the+right+part+of+the%0D%0ALanguage%0D%0AText+Meaning%0D%0AFIGURE+IV.3.+Language+as+a+Meaning+%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BCambria+Math%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E%E2%87%94%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BTimes+New+Roman%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E+Text+transformer.%0D%0ALANGUAGE+AS+A+MEANING+%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BCambria+Math%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E%E2%87%94%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BTimes+New+Roman%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E+TEXT+TRANSFORMER%0D%0A87%0D%0AEssentially%2C+this+definition+combines+the+second+and+the+third%0D%0Adefinitions+considered+in+the+previous+section.+Clearly%2C+the+transformation%0D%0Aof+Text+into+Meaning+and+vice+versa+is+obligatory+for+any%0D%0Ahuman+communication%2C+since+it+implies+transferring+the+Meaning%0D%0Afrom+one+person+to+another+using+the+Text+as+its+intermediate+representation.%0D%0AThe+transformation+of+Meaning+into+Text+is+obligatory+for%0D%0Athe+generation+of+utterances.+To+be+more+precise%2C+in+the+whole+process%0D%0Aof+communication+of+human+thoughts+the+definition+1+given+earlier%0D%0Aactually+refers+to+Meaning%2C+the+definition+2+to+Text%2C+and+the%0D%0Adefinition+3+to+both+mentioned+aspects+of+language.%0D%0AWith+our+present+definition%2C+language+can+be+considered+analogous%0D%0Ato+a+technical+device%2C+which+has+input+and+output.+Some+information%2C%0D%0Anamely+Text%2C+being+entered+to+its+input%2C+is+transformed+into%0D%0Aanother+form+with+equivalent+contents.%0D%0AThe+new+form+at+the+output+is+Meaning.+More+precisely%2C+we+consider%0D%0Aa+bi-directional+transformer%2C+i.e.%2C+two+transformers+working+in%0D%0ATexts+Meanings%0D%0AT+M%0D%0AFIGURE+IV.4.+Meaning+%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BCambria+Math%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E%E2%87%94%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BTimes+New+Roman%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E+Text+many-to-many%0D%0Amapping.%0D%0A88+COMPUTATIONAL+LINGUISTICS+AND+LINGUISTIC+MODELS%0D%0Aparallel+but+in+opposite+directions.+Text+is+the+result+of+the+activity%0D%0Aof+one+of+these+transformers%2C+and+Meaning%2C+of+the+other.%0D%0AProgrammers+can+compare+such+a+device+with+a+compiler%2C+let+us%0D%0Asay%2C+a+C%2B%2B+compiler%2C+which+takes+a+character+file+with+the+ASCII+text%0D%0Aof+the+program+in+the+input+and+produces+some+binary+code+with%0D%0Amachine+instructions%2C+as+the+output.+The+binary+code+corresponds+to%0D%0Athe+meaning+of+the+program.+However%2C+a+compiler+usually+cannot%0D%0Atranslate+the+machine+instructions+back+to+a+C%2B%2B+program+text.%0D%0AAs+a+mathematical+analogy+to+this+definition%2C+we+can+imagine+a%0D%0Abi-directional+mapping+between+one+huge+set%2C+the+set+of+all+possible%0D%0ATexts%2C+and+another+huge+set%2C+the+set+of+all+possible+Meanings+%28see%0D%0AFigure+IV.4%29.%0D%0AThe+two+sets%2C+Texts+and+Meanings%2C+are+not+quite+symmetric+in%0D%0Atheir+properties.+Only+the+Texts+have+an+explicit+expression%2C+only%0D%0Athey+can+be+immediately+observed+or+directly+transferred+from+one%0D%0Aperson+to+another%2C+while+the+Meanings+reside+in+the+brain+of+each%0D%0Aperson+independently+and+cannot+be+immediately+observed+or+assessed.%0D%0AFIGURE+IV.5.+Metaphor+of+surface+and+deep+structures.%0D%0ALANGUAGE+AS+A+MEANING+%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BCambria+Math%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E%E2%87%94%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BTimes+New+Roman%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E+TEXT+TRANSFORMER%0D%0A89%0D%0AThis+is+similar+to+the+front+panel+of+an+electrical+device%3A+the+lights%0D%0Aand+switches+on+its+surface+can+be+observed%2C+while+the+electrical%0D%0Aprocesses+represented+by+the+lights+and+controlled+by+the+switches%0D%0Aare+deep9+under+the+cover+of+the+device%2C+and+can+only+be+guessed+by%0D%0Awatching+the+lights+or+experimenting+with+the+switches.%0D%0AAnother+metaphor+of+surface+and+deep+structures+of+language+is%0D%0Ashown+in+Figure+IV.5.+We+can+directly+observe+the+surface+of+water%2C%0D%0Abut+in+order+to+learn+what+leaf+is+connected+to+what+flower+through%0D%0Acommon+roots%2C+we+need+to+analyze+what+is+under+the+surface.+There%0D%0Ais+much+more+below+the+surface+than+on+top+of+it%2C+and+only+analysis%0D%0Aof+the+deeper+phenomena+gives+us+understanding+of+the+whole+thing.%0D%0AAll+this+is+often+considered+as+surface+and+deep+levels+of+the+representation%0D%0Aof+utterances+%28see+Figure+IV.6%29.+The+man+on+the+picture%0D%0Acannot+see+the+meaning+of+the+text+immediately+and+has+to+penetrate%0D%0Abelow+the+surface+of+the+text+to+find+its+meaning.%0D%0AThus%2C+the+set+of+Texts+is+considered+the+surface+edge+of+the+Meaning%0D%0A%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BCambria+Math%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E%E2%87%94%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BTimes+New+Roman%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E+Text+transformer%2C+while+the+set+of+Meanings+gives+its+deep%0D%0Aedge.+The+Meaning+corresponding+to+the+given+Text+at+the+depth+is%0D%0Aalso+called+its+semantic+representation.%0D%0AThe+transformation+of+Meaning+into+Text+is+called+synthesis+of+the%0D%0AText.+The+transformation+to+the+inverse+direction%2C+that+is+from+Text%0D%0A9+See+also+discussion+of+the+terms+surface+and+deep+in+comparison+with+their+usage%0D%0Ain+generative+grammars+on+the+page+124.%0D%0ASurface+level%0D%0A%28Text%29%0D%0ADeep+level%0D%0A%28Meaning%29%0D%0AFIGURE+IV.6.+Two+levels+of+representation.%0D%0A90+COMPUTATIONAL+LINGUISTICS+AND+LINGUISTIC+MODELS%0D%0Ainto+Meaning%2C+is+called+analysis+of+Text.+Thus%2C+according+to+our+basic%0D%0Adefinition%2C+natural+language+is+both+analyzer+and+synthesizer+of%0D%0ATexts%2C+at+the+same+time.%0D%0AThis+definition+uses+the+notions+of+Text+and+Meaning%2C+although%0D%0Athey+have+been+neither+defined+nor+described+so+far.+Such+descriptions%0D%0Awill+be+given+in+the+following+sections.%0D%0ATEXT%2C+WHAT+IS+IT%3F%0D%0AThe+empirical+reality+for+theoretical+linguistics+comprises%2C+in+the%0D%0Afirst+place%2C+the+sounds+of+speech.+Samples+of+speech%2C+i.e.%2C+separate%0D%0Awords%2C+utterances%2C+discourses%2C+etc.%2C+are+given+to+the+researchers+directly%0D%0Aand%2C+for+living+languages%2C+are+available+in+an+unlimited+supply.%0D%0ASpeech+is+a+continuous+flow+of+acoustic+signals%2C+just+like+music+or%0D%0Anoise.+However%2C+linguistics+is+mainly+oriented+to+the+processing+of%0D%0Anatural+language+in+a+discrete+form.%0D%0AThe+discrete+form+of+speech+supposes+dividing+the+flow+of+the%0D%0Aacoustic+signals+into+sequentially+arranged+entities+belonging+to+a%0D%0Afinite+set+of+partial+signals.+The+finite+set+of+all+possible+partial+signals%0D%0Afor+a+given+language+is+similar+to+a+usual+alphabet%2C+and+is+actually%0D%0Acalled+a+phonetic+alphabet.%0D%0AFor+representation+of+the+sound+of+speech+on+paper%2C+a+special%0D%0Aphonetic+transcription+using+phonetic+symbols+to+represent+speech%0D%0Asounds+was+invented+by+scientists.+It+is+used+in+dictionaries%2C+to+explain%0D%0Athe+pronunciation+of+foreign+words%2C+and+in+theoretical+linguistics.%0D%0AA+different%2C+much+more+important+issue+for+modern+computational%0D%0Alinguistics+form+of+speech+representation+arose+spontaneously+in+the%0D%0Ahuman+practice+as+the+written+form+of+speech%2C+or+the+writing+system.%0D%0APeople+use+three+main+writing+systems%3A+that+of+alphabetic+type%2C+of%0D%0Asyllabic+type%2C+and+of+hieroglyphic+type.+The+majority+of+humankind%0D%0Ause+alphabetic+writing%2C+which+tries+to+reach+correspondence+between%0D%0Aletters+and+sounds+of+speech.%0D%0ALANGUAGE+AS+A+MEANING+%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BCambria+Math%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E%E2%87%94%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BTimes+New+Roman%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E+TEXT+TRANSFORMER%0D%0A91%0D%0ATwo+major+countries%2C+China+and+Japan%2C+10+use+the+hieroglyphic%0D%0Awriting.+Several+countries+use+syllabic+writing%2C+among+them+Korea.%0D%0AHieroglyphs+represent+the+meaning+of+words+or+their+parts.+At+least%2C%0D%0Athey+originally+were+intended+to+represent+directly+the+meaning%2C%0D%0Athough+the+direct+relationship+between+a+hieroglyph+and+the+meaning%0D%0Aof+the+word+in+some+cases+was+lost+long+ago.%0D%0ALetters+are+to+some+degree+similar+to+sounds+in+their+functions.+In%0D%0Atheir+origin%2C+letters+were+intended+to+directly+represent+sounds%2C+so%0D%0Athat+a+text+written+in+letters+is+some+kind+of+representation+of+the%0D%0Acorresponding+sounds+of+speech.+Nevertheless%2C+the+simple+relationship%0D%0Abetween+letters+and+sounds+in+many+languages+was+also+lost.+In%0D%0ASpanish%2C+however%2C+this+relationship+is+much+more+straightforward%0D%0Athan%2C+let+us+say%2C+in+English+or+French.%0D%0ASyllabic+signs+are+similar+to+letters%2C+but+each+of+them+represents+a%0D%0Awhole+syllable%2C+i.e.%2C+a+group+of+one+or+several+consonants+and+a%0D%0Avowel.+Thus%2C+such+a+writing+system+contains+a+greater+number+of%0D%0Asigns+and+sometimes+is+less+flexible+in+representing+new+words%2C+especially%0D%0Aforeign+ones.+Indeed%2C+foreign+languages+can+contain+specific%0D%0Acombinations+of+sounds%2C+which+cannot+be+represented+by+the%0D%0Agiven+set+of+syllables.+The+syllabic+signs+usually+have+more+sophisticated%0D%0Ashape+than+in+letter+type+writing%2C+resembling+hieroglyphs+to%0D%0Asome+degree.%0D%0AIn+more+developed+writing+systems+of+a+similar+type%2C+the+signs%0D%0A%28called+in+this+case+glyphs%29+can+represent+either+single+sounds+or+larger%0D%0Aparts+of+words+such+as+syllables%2C+groups+of+syllables%2C+or+entire%0D%0Awords.+An+example+of+such+a+writing+system+is+Mayan+writing+%28see%0D%0AFigure+I.2%29.+In+spite+of+their+unusual+appearance%2C+Mayan+glyphs+are%0D%0Amore+syllabic+signs+than+hieroglyphs%2C+and+they+usually+represent+the%0D%0Asounds+of+the+speech+rather+than+the+meaning+of+words.+The+reader%0D%0Acan+become+familiar+with+Mayan+glyphs+through+the+Internet+site%0D%0A%5B52%5D.%0D%0A10+In+fact%2C+Japanese+language+uses+a+mixture+of+hieroglyphic+and+syllabic+symbols%2C%0D%0Athough+the+use+of+syllabic+symbols+is+limited.%0D%0A92+COMPUTATIONAL+LINGUISTICS+AND+LINGUISTIC+MODELS%0D%0ACurrently%2C+most+of+the+practical+tasks+of+computational+linguistics%0D%0Aare+connected+with+written+texts+stored+on+computer+media.+Among%0D%0Awritten+texts%2C+those+written+in+alphabetic+symbols+are+more+usual+for%0D%0Acomputational+linguistics+than+the+phonetic+transcription+of%0D%0Aspeech.11+Hence%2C+in+this+book+the+methods+of+language+processing%0D%0Awill+usually+be+applied+to+the+written+form+of+natural+language.%0D%0AFor+the+given+reason%2C+Texts+mentioned+in+the+definition+of+language%0D%0Ashould+then+be+thought+of+as+common+texts+in+their+usual%0D%0Awritten+form.+Written+texts+are+chains+of+letters%2C+usually+subdivided%0D%0Ainto+separate+words+by+spaces12+and+punctuation+marks.+The+combinations%0D%0Aof+words+can+constitute+sentences%2C+paragraphs%2C+and+discourses.%0D%0AFor+computational+linguistics%2C+all+of+them+are+examples+of%0D%0ATexts.13%0D%0AWords+are+not+utmost+elementary+units+of+language.+Fragments+of%0D%0Atexts%2C+which+are+smaller+than+words+and%2C+at+the+same+time%2C+have+their%0D%0Aown+meanings%2C+are+called+morphs.+We+will+define+morphs+more+precisely%0D%0Alater.+Now+it+is+sufficient+for+us+to+understand+that+a+morph%0D%0Acan+contain+an+arbitrary+number+of+letters+%28or+now+and+then+no+letters%0D%0Aat+all%21%29%2C+and+can+cover+a+whole+word+or+some+part+of+it.+Therefore%2C%0D%0AMeanings+can+correspond+to+some+specially+defined+parts+of%0D%0Awords%2C+whole+words%2C+phrases%2C+sentences%2C+paragraphs%2C+and+discourses.%0D%0AIt+is+helpful+to+compare+the+linear+structure+of+text+with+the+flow%0D%0Aof+musical+sounds.+The+mouth+as+the+organ+of+speech+has+rather+limited%0D%0Aabilities.+It+can+utter+only+one+sound+at+a+time%2C+and+the+flow+of%0D%0Athese+sounds+can+be+additionally+modulated+only+in+a+very+restricted%0D%0Amanner%2C+e.g.%2C+by+stress%2C+intonation%2C+etc.+On+the+contrary%2C+a+set+of+musical%0D%0Ainstruments+can+produce+several+sounds+synchronously%2C+form-%0D%0A11+This+does+not+mean+that+the+discussed+methods+are+not+applicable+to+phonetic%0D%0Atranscription+or%2C+on+the+other+hand%2C+to+hieroglyphs.+However%2C+just+for+simplification%0D%0Awe+will+choose+only+the+representation+by+letters.%0D%0A12+In+some+writing+systems%2C+like+Japanese%2C+words+are+not+separated+by+spaces+in%0D%0Athe+written+text.+Of+course%2C+this+does+not+mean+that+these+languages+do+not+have%0D%0Awords%2C+but+the+word+boundaries+are+not+reflected+in+writing.+As+opposed+to+Japanese%2C%0D%0AVietnamese+separates+all+the+syllables.%0D%0A13+In+Western+tradition+including+HPSG%2C+Text+in+the+given+sense+is+called+list+of%0D%0Aphoneme+strings%2C+or+simply+phonetic+representation+of+a+linguistic+sign.%0D%0ALANGUAGE+AS+A+MEANING+%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BCambria+Math%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E%E2%87%94%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BTimes+New+Roman%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E+TEXT+TRANSFORMER%0D%0A93%0D%0Aing+harmonies+or+several+melodies+going+in+parallel.+This+parallelism%0D%0Acan+be+considered+as+nonlinear+structuring.+The+human+had+to%0D%0Abe+satisfied+with+the+instrument+of+speech+given+to+him+by+nature.%0D%0AThis+is+why+we+use+while+speaking+a+linear+and+rather+slow+method%0D%0Aof+acoustic+coding+of+the+information+we+want+to+communicate+to%0D%0Asomebody+else.%0D%0AThe+main+features+of+a+Text+can+be+summarized+as+follows%3A%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+Meaning.+Not+any+sequence+of+letters+can+be+considered+a+text.+A%0D%0Atext+is+intended+to+encode+some+information+relevant+for+human%0D%0Abeings.+The+existing+connection+between+texts+and+meanings+is%0D%0Athe+reason+for+processing+natural+language+texts.%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+Linear+structure.+While+the+information+contained+in+the+text+can%0D%0Ahave+a+very+complicated+structure%2C+with+many+relationships+between%0D%0Aits+elements%2C+the+text+itself+has+always+one-dimensional%2C%0D%0Alinear+nature%2C+given+letter+by+letter.+Of+course%2C+the+fact+that+lines%0D%0Aare+organized+in+a+square+book+page+does+not+matter%3A+it+is+equivalent%0D%0Ato+just+one+very+long+line%2C+wrapped+to+fit+in+the+pages.+Therefore%2C%0D%0Aa+text+represents+non-linear+information+transformed+into+a%0D%0Alinear+form.+What+is+more%2C+the+human+cannot+represent+in+usual%0D%0Atexts+even+the+restricted+non-linear+elements+of+spoken+language%2C%0D%0Anamely%2C+intonation+and+logical+stress.+Punctuation+marks+only%0D%0Agive+a+feeble+approximation+to+these+non-linear+elements.%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+Nested+structure+and+coherence.+A+text+consists+of+elementary%0D%0Apieces+having+their+own%2C+usually+rather+elementary%2C+meaning.%0D%0AThey+are+organized+in+larger+structures%2C+such+as+words%2C+which+in%0D%0Aturn+have+their+own+meaning.+This+meaning+is+determined+by+the%0D%0Ameaning+of+each+one+of+their+components%2C+though+not+always+in+a%0D%0Astraightforward+way.+These+structures+are+organized+in+even+larger%0D%0Astructures+like+sentences%2C+etc.+The+sentences%2C+paragraphs%2C+etc.%2C%0D%0Aconstitute+what+is+called+discourse%2C+the+main+property+of+which+is%0D%0Aits+connectivity%2C+or+coherence%3A+it+tells+some+consistent+story+about%0D%0Aobjects%2C+persons%2C+or+relations%2C+common+to+all+its+parts.+Such+organization%0D%0Aprovides+linguistics+with+the+means+to+develop+the%0D%0Amethods+of+intelligent+text+processing.%0D%0A94+COMPUTATIONAL+LINGUISTICS+AND+LINGUISTIC+MODELS%0D%0AThus%2C+we+could+say+that+linguistics+studies+human+ways+of+linear%0D%0Aencoding14+of+non-linear+information.%0D%0AMEANING%2C+WHAT+IS+IT%3F%0D%0AMeanings%2C+in+contrast+to+texts%2C+cannot+be+observed+directly.+As+we%0D%0Amentioned+above%2C+we+consider+the+Meaning+to+be+the+structures+in%0D%0Athe+human+brain+which+people+experience+as+ideas+and+thoughts.%0D%0ASince+we+do+not+know+and+cannot+precisely+represent+those+brain%0D%0Aprocesses%2C+for+practical+purposes+we+must+use+a+representation+of%0D%0AMeaning%2C+which+is+more+suitable+for+manipulation+in+a+computer.%0D%0AThus%2C+for+our+purposes%2C+Meaning+will+be+identified+with+that+representation.%0D%0AIn+the+future%2C+neurophysiological+research+will+eventually+discover%0D%0Awhat+signals+really+correspond+to+meanings+in+our+brain%2C+and%0D%0Awhat+structure+these+signals+have%2C+but+for+now+those+signals+remain%0D%0Aonly+vaguely+understood.+Hence+we+take+the+pragmatic+viewpoint%0D%0Athat%2C+if+a+representation+we+use+allows+a+computer+to+manipulate+and%0D%0Arespond+to+texts+with+an+ability+close+to+that+of+a+human%2C+then+this%0D%0Arepresentation+is+rather+good+for+the+real+Meaning+and+fits+our+purposes.%0D%0AAs+it+was+described+earlier%2C+the+task+of+language+is+to+transform%0D%0Ainformation+from+one+representation%2C+the+Text%2C+into+another%2C+the%0D%0AMeaning%2C+and+vice+versa.+A+computer+program+that+models+the+function%0D%0Aof+language+must+perform+the+same+task.+In+any+application%2C%0D%0Athere+should+be+some+other+system+or+device+that+consumes+the+results%0D%0Aof+the+transformation+of+texts%2C+and+produces+the+information%0D%0Athat+is+to+be+transformed+into+a+text.+The+operations+of+such+a+device%0D%0Aor+a+system+is+beyond+the+scope+of+computational+linguistics+itself.%0D%0ARather%2C+such+a+system+uses+the+linguistic+module+as+its+interface%0D%0Awith+the+outer+world+%28see+Figure+IV.7%29.%0D%0A14+And+also+compression%2C+which+increases+the+non-linearity+of+the+underlying%0D%0Astructure.%0D%0ALANGUAGE+AS+A+MEANING+%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BCambria+Math%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E%E2%87%94%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BTimes+New+Roman%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E+TEXT+TRANSFORMER%0D%0A95%0D%0AFor+a+linguistic+module+of+a+system%2C+the+Meaning+is+a+formal+language%0D%0Aor+a+format+of+information+representation+immediately+understandable%0D%0Afor%2C+or+executable+on%2C+the+consumer+of+the+information%3A%0D%0Athe+underlying+expert+or+reasoning+system%2C+database%2C+robot+control%0D%0Asystem%2C+etc.+It+is+supposed+that+this+underlying+system+produces+its%0D%0Aresponses+just+in+the+same+format.+Thus%2C+in+practice%2C+the+format+of%0D%0AMeaning+is+already+given+to+the+developers+of+the+linguistic+module%0D%0Afor+any+specific+application+system.%0D%0AUsually%2C+such+systems+are+aware+on+the+entities+mentioned+in+the%0D%0Atext%2C+their+states%2C+properties%2C+processes%2C+actions%2C+and+relationships.%0D%0ABesides%2C+there+exists+other+type+of+information+in+a+text%2C+such+as%0D%0Abeliefs%2C+estimations%2C+and+intentions+of+its+author.+For+example%2C+in+the%0D%0ASpanish+sentence+Creo+que+su+esposa+est%C3%A1+aqu%C3%AD%2C+the+part+reflecting%0D%0Athe+author%E2%80%99s+belief+is+given+in+bold+face.+The+author+usually+flavors%0D%0Aany+text+with+these+elements.+Words+reflecting+basic+information%2C%0D%0Athrough+some+stylistic+coloring%2C+can+additionally+express+author%E2%80%99s%0D%0Aattitude.+For+example%2C+the+Spanish+sentence+Este+hombr%C3%B3n+no+est%C3%A1%0D%0Atrabajando+ahora+has+the+meaning+%E2%80%98this+man+is+not+working+now%0D%0Aand+I+consider+him+big+and+coarse%E2%80%99.%0D%0APerhaps+only+very+formal+texts+like+legal+documents+do+not+contain%0D%0Asubjective+attitude+of+the+author%28s%29+to+the+reflected+issues.+The%0D%0ALinguistic%0D%0Amodule%0D%0AMeanings%0D%0AThis+is+an+example+of+the+output+text+of%0D%0Athe+system.+This+is+an+example+of+the%0D%0Aoutput+text+of+the+system.+This+is+an%0D%0Aexample+of+the+output+text+of+the%0D%0Asystem.+This+is+an+example+of+the+output%0D%0Atext+of+the+system.+This+is+an+example+of%0D%0Athe+output+text+of+the+system.+This+is+an%0D%0Aexample+of+the+output+text+of+the%0D%0Asystem.+This+is+an+example+of+the+output%0D%0Atext+of+the+system.+This+is+an+example+of%0D%0Athe+output+text+of+the+system.+This+is+an%0D%0Aexample+of+the+output+text+of+the%0D%0Asystem.+This+is+an+example+of+the+output%0D%0Atext+of+the+system.+This+is+an+example+of%0D%0Athe+output+text+of+the+system.+This+is+an%0D%0Aexample+of+the+output+text+of+the%0D%0Asystem.+This+is+an+example+of+the+output%0D%0Atext+of+the+system.+This+is+an+example+of%0D%0Athe+output+text+of+the+system.+This+is+an%0D%0ATexts%0D%0ALinguistic%0D%0Amodule%0D%0AApplied%0D%0Asystem%0D%0AFIGURE+IV.7.+Structure+of+an+application+system%0D%0Awith+a+natural+language+interface.%0D%0A96+COMPUTATIONAL+LINGUISTICS+AND+LINGUISTIC+MODELS%0D%0Aadvanced+application+system+should+distinguish+the+basic+information%0D%0Adelivered+in+texts+from+author%E2%80%99s+beliefs%2C+estimations%2C+and+intentions.%0D%0AAdditionally%2C+even+a+very+formal+text+contains+many+explicit+references%0D%0Aand+explanations+of+links+between+parts+of+a+text%2C+and+these%0D%0Aelements+serve+as+a+content+table+or+a+protocol+of+the+author%E2%80%99s+information%0D%0Aabout+text+structuring.+This+is+not+the+information+about%0D%0Athe+relevant+matters+as+such.+Instead%2C+this+is+some+kind+of+metainformation%0D%0Aabout+how+the+parts+of+the+text+are+combined+together%2C%0D%0Ai.e.%2C+a+%E2%80%9Ctext+about+text.%E2%80%9D+We+will+not+discuss+such+insertions+in+this%0D%0Abook.+Since+properties%2C+processes%2C+and+actions+can+be+represented+as%0D%0Arelationships+between+entities+touched+upon+in+Text%2C+just+these+features%0D%0Aare+used+to+represent+Meaning.%0D%0AThe+entities%2C+states%2C+properties%2C+processes%2C+and+actions+are+usually%0D%0Adenoted+by+some+names+in+semantic+representation.+These+names%0D%0Acan+be+compared+with+the+names+of+variables+and+functions+in+a%0D%0Acomputer+program.+Such+names+have+no+parts+of+speech%2C+so+that+a%0D%0Aprocess+or+an+action+of%2C+say%2C+%E2%80%98development%E2%80%99+can+be+equally+called+in%0D%0ASpanish+desarrollar+or+desarrollo%2C+while+the+property+of+%E2%80%98small%E2%80%99+can%0D%0Abe+equally+called+peque%C3%B1o+or+ser+peque%C3%B1o.+Usually+only+one+wordform%0D%0Ais+used+for+the+name%2C+so+that+the+property+itself+is+called%2C+for%0D%0Ainstance%2C+peque%C3%B1o+%28neither+peque%C3%B1a+nor+peque%C3%B1as%29.+Concerning+the%0D%0Avalue+plural+of+grammatical+category+of+number%2C+on+the+semantic%0D%0Alevel+it+is+transformed+to+the+notion+of+multiplicity+and+is+represented%0D%0Aby+a+separate+element.%0D%0ATWO+WAYS+TO+REPRESENT+MEANING%0D%0ATo+represent+the+entities+and+relationships+mentioned+in+the+texts%2C%0D%0Athe+following+two+logically+and+mathematically+equivalent+formalisms%0D%0Aare+used%3A%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+Predicative+formulas.+Logical+predicates+are+introduced+in%0D%0Amathematical+logic.+In+linguistics%2C+they+are+used+in+conventional%0D%0Alogical+notation+and+can+have+one+or+more+arguments.+Coherence%0D%0ALANGUAGE+AS+A+MEANING+%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BCambria+Math%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E%E2%87%94%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BTimes+New+Roman%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E+TEXT+TRANSFORMER%0D%0A97%0D%0Aof+a+text+is+expressed+in+the+first+place+by+means+of+common+arguments%0D%0Afor+the+predicates+involved.+For+example%2C+the+meaning%0D%0Aof+the+sentence+Las+ni%C3%B1as+peque%C3%B1as+ven+la+flor+roja+is+represented%0D%0Aby+the+following+conjunctive+predicative+formula%3A%0D%0AVER%28ni%C3%B1a%2C+flor%29+%26amp%3B%0D%0AMUCHO%28ni%C3%B1a%29+%26amp%3B%0D%0APEQUE%C3%91O%28ni%C3%B1a%29+%26amp%3B%0D%0ASOLO%28flor%29+%26amp%3B%0D%0AROJO%28flor%29%0D%0AIn+such+representation%2C+predicates+SOLO+and+MUCHO+have+the%0D%0Ameanings+%E2%80%98number+of+the+entities+given+by+the+argument+is+one%E2%80%99%0D%0Aand+%E2%80%98number+of+the+entities+given+by+the+argument+is+more+than%0D%0Aone%2C%E2%80%99+respectively.+Arguments+of+the+predicates+that+are+not%0D%0Apredicates+by+themselves+are+called+terms.+They+are+written+in%0D%0Alowercase+letters%2C+in+contrast+to+the+predicates+that+are+written+in%0D%0Auppercase.%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+Directed+labeled+graphs.+The+nodes+of+these+graphs+represent+the%0D%0Aterms+or+predicates%2C+and+the+arrows+connect+predicates+with+their%0D%0Aarguments%2C+i.e.%2C+terms+or+other+predicates.+The+arrows+are+marked%0D%0Awith+numeric+labels+according+to+the+number+of+the+corresponding%0D%0Aargument+%281st+argument%2C+2nd%2C+etc.%29.+Though+each+predicate+as-%0D%0AVER%0D%0Ani%C3%B1a+flor%0D%0AROJO%0D%0AMUCHO%0D%0APEQUE%C3%91O%0D%0A1%0D%0A1%0D%0A1%0D%0A1%0D%0A2%0D%0ASOLO%0D%0A1%0D%0AFIGURE+IV.8.+Semantic+network+for+the+sentence%0D%0ALas+ni%C3%B1as+peque%C3%B1as+ven+la+flor+roja.%0D%0A98+COMPUTATIONAL+LINGUISTICS+AND+LINGUISTIC+MODELS%0D%0Asigns+to+each+its+argument+a+specific+semantic+role%2C+the+numerical%0D%0Alabels+in+the+graph+are+used+only+to+distinguish+the+arguments.%0D%0AFor+predicates+denoting+actions%2C+the+label+1+usually+marks+the%0D%0Aagent%2C+the+label+2%2C+patient+or+target%2C+etc.+Nevertheless%2C+a+label+of%0D%0Asuch+type+does+not+make+any+semantic+allusion%2C+the+enumeration%0D%0Abeing+rather+arbitrary.+Thus%2C+the+graph+representation+is+just%0D%0Aequivalent+to+the+predicate+one+rather+than+provides+any+additional%0D%0Ainformation.+The+semantic+representation+in+the+form+of+directed%0D%0Alabeled+graph+is+often+called+semantic+network.%0D%0AFigure+IV.8+shows+the+semantic+network+representation+for+the%0D%0Aexample+above.%0D%0AThese+two+representations+are+equivalent%2C+and+either+of+them+can%0D%0Abe+used.+Indeed%2C+there+exist+a+number+of+easy+ways+to+encode+any%0D%0Anetwork+linearly.%0D%0AFor+human+readers%2C+in+books+and+articles%2C+the+graph+representation%0D%0Ais+especially+convenient.+For+internal+structures+of+a+computer+program%2C%0D%0Athe+equivalent+predicative+representation+is+usually+preferred%2C%0D%0Awith+special+formal+means+to+enumerate+the+referentially+common%0D%0Aarguments+of+various+logical+predicates.%0D%0AThe+graph+representation+explicitly+shows+the+commonality+of+the%0D%0Aarguments%2C+making+it+obvious+what+is+known+about+a+specific+entity.%0D%0AIn+the+drawing+shown+in+the+Figure+IV.8%2C+for+example%2C+it+is+immediately%0D%0Aseen+that+there+are+three+pieces+of+information+about+the+terms%0D%0Ani%C3%B1a+and+flor%2C+two+pieces+about+the+predicate+VER%2C+and+one+for%0D%0Apredicate+ROJO+and+SOLO.%0D%0ASome+scientists+identify+the+representations+of+Meaning+with+the%0D%0Arepresentation+of+human+knowledge+in+general15.+The+human+knowledge%0D%0Ais+of+concern+not+only+for+natural+language+processing%2C+but+also%0D%0Afor+the+task+of+transferring+knowledge+between+computers%2C+whether%0D%0Athat+knowledge+is+expressed+by+natural+language+or+by+some+other%0D%0Ameans.+For+the+transfer+of+knowledge%2C+it+is+important+to+standardize%0D%0A15+Within+the+computer+community%2C+efforts+are+under+way+to+develop+knowledge%0D%0Arepresentation+both+in+a+linear+format+%28KIF+%3D+Knowledge+Interchange+Format%29%2C+and%0D%0Ain+a+graphical+format+%28CG+%3D+Conceptual+Graphs%29.%0D%0ALANGUAGE+AS+A+MEANING+%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BCambria+Math%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E%E2%87%94%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BTimes+New+Roman%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E+TEXT+TRANSFORMER%0D%0A99%0D%0Amethods+of+representation%2C+so+that+the+knowledge+can+be+communicated%0D%0Aaccurately.+Just+for+these+purposes%2C+the+computer+community%0D%0Ais+developing+knowledge+representation+in+both+the+linear+and+the%0D%0Agraphical+format.+The+accuracy+and+utility+of+any+representation+of%0D%0Aknowledge+should+be+verified+in+practice%2C+i.e.%2C+in+applications.%0D%0AIn+the+opinion+of+other+scientists%2C+the+representations+of+Meaning%0D%0Aand+of+human+knowledge+can+operate+by+the+same+logical+structures%2C%0D%0Abut+the+knowledge+in+general+is+in+no+way+coincident+with+purely%0D%0Alinguistic+knowledge+and+even+can+have+different%2C+non-discrete%2C+nature.%0D%0AHence%2C+they+argue%2C+for+the+transition+from+Meaning+in+its+linguistic%0D%0Asense+to+the+corresponding+representation+in+terms+of+general%0D%0Ahuman+knowledge%2C+some+special+stage+is+needed.+This+stage+is+not+a%0D%0Apart+of+language+and+can+operate+with+tools+not+included+in+those+of%0D%0Athe+language+proper.%0D%0ADECOMPOSITION+AND+ATOMIZATION+OF+MEANING%0D%0ASemantic+representation+in+many+cases+turns+out+to+be+universal%2C%0D%0Ai.e.%2C+common+to+different+natural+languages.+Purely+grammatical%0D%0Afeatures+of+different+languages+are+not+usually+reflected+in+this+representation.%0D%0AFor+example%2C+the+gender+of+Spanish+nouns+and+adjectives%0D%0Ais+not+included+in+their+semantic+representation%2C+so+that+this%0D%0Arepresentation+turned+to+be+equal+to+that+of+English.+If+the+given%0D%0Anoun+refers+to+a+person+of+a+specific+sex%2C+the+latter+is+reflected+on%0D%0Asemantic+level+explicitly%2C+via+a+special+predicate+of+sex%2C+and+it+is+on%0D%0Athe+grammar+of+specific+language+where+is+established+the+correspondence%0D%0Abetween+sex+and+gender.+It+is+curious+that+in+German%0D%0Anouns+can+have+three+genders%3A+masculine%2C+feminine%2C+and+neuter%2C+but%0D%0Athe+noun+M%C3%A4dchen+%E2%80%98girl%E2%80%99+is+neuter%2C+not+feminine%21%0D%0AThus%2C+the+semantic+representation+of+the+English+sentence+The+little%0D%0Agirls+see+the+red+flower+it+is+the+same+as+the+one+given+above%2C%0D%0Adespite+the+absence+of+gender+in+English+nouns+and+adjectives.+The%0D%0Arepresentation+of+the+corresponding+Russian+sentence+is+the+same%0D%0Atoo%2C+though+the+word+used+for+red+in+Russian+has+masculine+gender%2C%0D%0A100+COMPUTATIONAL+LINGUISTICS+AND+LINGUISTIC+MODELS%0D%0Abecause+of+its+agreement+in+gender+with+corresponding+noun+of%0D%0Amasculine.16%0D%0ANevertheless%2C+the+cases+when+semantic+representations+for+two+or%0D%0Amore+utterances+with+seemingly+the+same+meaning+do+occur.+In+such%0D%0Asituations%2C+linguists+hope+to+find+a+universal+representation+via+decomposition%0D%0Aand+even+atomization+of+the+meaning+of+several+semantic%0D%0Acomponents.%0D%0AIn+natural+sciences%2C+such+as+physics%2C+researchers+usually+try+to+divide%0D%0Aall+the+entities+under+consideration+into+the+simplest+possible%2C%0D%0Ai.e.%2C+atomic%2C+or+elementary%2C+units+and+then+to+deduce+properties+of%0D%0Atheir+conglomerations+from+the+properties+of+these+elementary+entities.%0D%0AIn+principle%2C+linguistics+has+the+same+objective.+It+tries+to+find%0D%0Athe+atomic+elements+of+meaning+usually+called+semantic+primitives%2C%0D%0Aor+semes.%0D%0ASemes+are+considered+indefinable%2C+since+they+cannot+be+interpreted%0D%0Ain+terms+of+any+other+linguistic+meanings.+Nevertheless%2C+they%0D%0Acan+be+explained+to+human+readers+by+examples+from+the+extralinguistic%0D%0Areality%2C+such+as+pictures%2C+sound+records%2C+videos%2C+etc.+All+other%0D%0Acomponents+of+semantic+representation+should+be+then+expressed%0D%0Athrough+the+semes.%0D%0AIn+other+words%2C+each+predicate+or+its+terms+can+be+usually+represented%0D%0Ain+the+semantic+representation+of+text+in+a+more+detailed%0D%0Amanner%2C+such+as+a+logical+formula+or+a+semantic+graph.+For+example%2C%0D%0Awe+can+decompose%0D%0AMATAR%28x%29+%E2%86%92+CAUSAR%28MORIR%28x%29%29+%E2%86%92+CAUSAR%28%0D%0ACESAR%28VIVIR%28x%29%29%29%2C%0D%0Ai.e.%2C+MATAR%28x%29+is+something+like+%E2%80%98causar+cesar+el+vivir%28x%29%2C%E2%80%99+or%0D%0A%E2%80%98cause+stop+living%28x%29%2C%E2%80%99+where+the+predicates+CESAR%28x%29%2C+VIVIR%28y%29%2C%0D%0Aand+CAUSAR%28z%29+are+more+elementary+than+the+initial+predicate%0D%0AMATAR%28x%29.17%0D%0A16+In+Russian%3A+Malen%E2%80%99kie+devochki+vidjat+krasnyj+cvetok%3B+the+two+last+words+are%0D%0Asingular+masculine.%0D%0A17+Some+researchers+consider+the+predicate+TO+LIVE%28x%29+elementary.%0D%0ALANGUAGE+AS+A+MEANING+%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BCambria+Math%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E%E2%87%94%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BTimes+New+Roman%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E+TEXT+TRANSFORMER%0D%0A101%0D%0AFigure+IV.9+shows+a+decomposition+of+the+sentence+Juan+mat%C3%B3+a%0D%0AJos%C3%A9+enseguida+%3D+Juan+caus%C3%B3+a+Jos%C3%A9+cesar+vivir+enseguida+in+the%0D%0Amentioned+more+primitive+notions.+Note+that+the+number+labels+of%0D%0Avalencies+of+the+whole+combination+of+the+primitives+can+differ+from%0D%0Athe+number+labels+of+corresponding+valencies+of+the+member+primitives%3A%0D%0Ae.g.%2C+the+actant+2+of+the+whole+combination+is+the+actant+1+of%0D%0Athe+component+VIVIR.+The+mark+C+in+Figure+IV.9+stands+for+the+circumstantial%0D%0Arelation+%28which+is+not+a+valency+but+something+inverse%2C%0D%0Ai.e.%2C+a+passive+semantic+valency%29.%0D%0AOver+the+past+30+years%2C+ambitious+attempts+to+find+and+describe+a%0D%0Alimited+number+of+semes%2C+to+which+a+major+part+of+the+semantics+of%0D%0Aa+natural+language+would+be+reduced%2C+have+not+been+successful.%0D%0ASome+scientists+agree+that+the+expected+number+of+such+semes+is%0D%0Anot+much+more+than+2%C2%B4000%2C+but+until+now%2C+this+figure+is+still+debatable.%0D%0ATo+comply+with+needs+of+computational+linguistics%2C+everybody%0D%0Aagreed+that+it+is+sufficient+to+disintegrate+meanings+of+lexemes+to+a%0D%0Areasonable+limit+implied+by+the+application.%0D%0ATherefore%2C+computational+linguistics+uses+many+evidently+nonelementary%0D%0Aterms+and+logical+predicates+in+the+semantic+representation.%0D%0AFrom+this+point+of+view%2C+the+translation+from+one+cognate+language%0D%0Ato+another+does+not+need+any+disintegration+of+meaning+at+all.%0D%0AJuan+Jos%C3%A9+enseguida%0D%0AJuan+Jos%C3%A9+enseguida%0D%0A1+2%0D%0A1+2%0D%0A1%0D%0A2%0D%0A%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BCambria+Math%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E%E2%87%94%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BTimes+New+Roman%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E%0D%0A1%0D%0A1%0D%0AC%0D%0AC%0D%0AC%0D%0AMATAR%0D%0ACAUSAR%0D%0ACESAR%0D%0AVIVIR%0D%0AMA+TA+R%0D%0AFIGURE+IV.9.+Decomposition+of+the+verb+MATAR+into+semes.%0D%0A102+COMPUTATIONAL+LINGUISTICS+AND+LINGUISTIC+MODELS%0D%0AOnce+again%2C+only+practical+results+help+computational+linguists+to%0D%0Ajudge+what+meaning+representation+is+the+best+for+the+selected+application%0D%0Adomain.%0D%0ANOT-UNIQUENESS+OF+MEANING+%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BCambria+Math%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E%E2%87%92%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BTimes+New+Roman%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E+TEXT+MAPPING%3A+SYNONYMY%0D%0AReturning+to+the+mapping+of+Meanings+to+Texts+and+vice+versa%2C+we%0D%0Ashould+mention+that%2C+in+contrast+to+common+mathematical+functions%2C%0D%0Athis+mapping+is+not+unique+in+both+directions%2C+i.e.%2C+it+is+of+the+manyto-%0D%0Amany+type.+In+this+section%2C+we+will+discuss+one+direction+of+the%0D%0Amapping%3A+from+Meanings+to+Texts.%0D%0ADifferent+texts+or+their+fragments+can+be%2C+in+the+opinion+of+all+or%0D%0Athe+majority+of+people%2C+equivalent+in+their+meanings.+In+other+words%2C%0D%0Atwo+or+more+texts+can+be+mapped+to+the+same+element+of+the+set+of%0D%0AMeanings.+In+Figure+IV.4%2C+the+Meaning+M+is+represented+with+three%0D%0Adifferent+Texts+T%2C+i.e.%2C+these+three+Texts+have+the+same+Meaning.18%0D%0AFor+example%2C+the+Spanish+adjectives+peque%C3%B1o+and+chico+are%0D%0Aequivalent+in+many+contexts%2C+as+well+as+the+English+words+small+and%0D%0Alittle.+Such+equivalent+words+are+called+synonymous+words%2C+or+synonyms%2C%0D%0Aand+the+phenomenon+is+called+synonymy+of+words.+We+can%0D%0Aconsider+also+synonymy+of+word+combinations+%28phrases%29+or+sentences%0D%0Aas+well.+In+these+cases+the+term+synonymous+expressions+is%0D%0Aused.%0D%0AThe+words+equivalent+in+all+possible+contexts+are+called+absolute%0D%0Asynonyms.+Trivial+examples+of+absolute+synonymy+are+abbreviated%0D%0Aand+complete+names+of+organizations%2C+e.g.+in+Spanish+ONU+%E2%89%A1+Organizaci%C3%B3n%0D%0Ade+las+Naciones+Unidas.+Nontrivial+examples+of+absolute%0D%0Asynonymy+of+single+words+are+rather+rare+in+any+language.+Examples%0D%0Afrom+Mexican+Spanish+are%3A+alzadura+%E2%89%A1+alzamiento%2C+acotaci%C3%B3n+%E2%89%A1+acotamiento%2C%0D%0Acoche+%E2%89%A1+carro.%0D%0AHowever%2C+it+is+more+frequent+that+the+two+synonyms+are+equivalent%0D%0Ain+their+meanings+in+many+contexts%2C+but+not+all.%0D%0A18+This+is+shown+by+the+three+bold+arrows+in+Figure+IV.4.%0D%0ALANGUAGE+AS+A+MEANING+%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BCambria+Math%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E%E2%87%94%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BTimes+New+Roman%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E+TEXT+TRANSFORMER%0D%0A103%0D%0ASometimes+the+set+of+possible+contexts+for+one+such+synonym%0D%0Acovers+the+whole+set+of+contexts+for+another+synonym%3B+this+is+called%0D%0Ainclusive+synonymy.+Spanish+examples+are+querer+%26gt%3B+desear+%26gt%3B+anhelar%3A%0D%0Aquerer+is+less+specific+than+desear+which+in+turn+is+less+specific%0D%0Athan+anhelar.+It+means+that+in+nearly+every+context+we+can+substitute%0D%0Adesear+or+querer+for+anhelar%2C+but+not+in+every+context+anhelar+can%0D%0Abe+substituted+for+querer+or+desear.%0D%0AMost+frequently%2C+though%2C+we+can+find+only+some%E2%80%94perhaps+significant%E2%80%94%0D%0Aintersection+of+the+possible+sets+of+contexts.+For+example%2C%0D%0Athe+Spanish+nouns+deseo+and+voluntad+are+exchangeable+in+many%0D%0Acases%2C+but+in+some+cases+only+one+of+them+can+be+used.%0D%0ASuch+partial+synonyms+never+have+quite+the+same+meaning.+In%0D%0Asome+contexts%2C+the+difference+is+not+relevant%2C+so+that+they+both+can%0D%0Abe+used%2C+whereas+in+other+contexts+the+difference+does+not+permit+to%0D%0Areplace+one+partial+synonym+with+the+other.%0D%0AThe+book+%5B24%5D+is+a+typical+dictionary+of+synonyms+in+printed%0D%0Aform.+The+menu+item+Language+%7C+Synonyms+in+Microsoft+Word+is+a%0D%0Atypical+example+of+an+electronic+dictionary+of+synonyms.+However%2C%0D%0Amany+of+the+words+that+it+contains+in+partial+lists+are+not+really%0D%0Asynonyms%2C+but+related+words%2C+or+partial+synonyms%2C+with+a+rather%0D%0Asmall+intersection+of+common+contexts.%0D%0ANOT-UNIQUENESS+OF+TEXT+%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BCambria+Math%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E%E2%87%92%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BTimes+New+Roman%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E+MEANING+MAPPING%3A+HOMONYMY%0D%0AIn+the+opposite+direction%E2%80%94Texts+to+Meanings%E2%80%94a+text+or+its+fragment%0D%0Acan+exhibit+two+or+more+different+meanings.+That+is%2C+one+element%0D%0Aof+the+surface+edge+of+the+mapping+%28i.e.+text%29+can+correspond+to%0D%0Atwo+or+more+elements+of+the+deep+edge.+We+have+already+discussed%0D%0Athis+phenomenon+in+the+section+on+automatic+translation%2C+where+the%0D%0Aexample+of+Spanish+word+gato+was+given+%28see+page+72%29.+Many+such%0D%0Aexamples+can+be+found+in+any+Spanish-English+dictionary.+A+few%0D%0Amore+examples+from+Spanish+are+given+below.%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+The+Spanish+adjective+real+has+two+quite+different+meanings+corresponding%0D%0Ato+the+English+real+and+royal.%0D%0A104+COMPUTATIONAL+LINGUISTICS+AND+LINGUISTIC+MODELS%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+The+Spanish+verb+querer+has+three+different+meanings+corresponding%0D%0Ato+English+to+wish%2C+to+like%2C+and+to+love.%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+The+Spanish+noun+antig%C3%BCedad+has+three+different+meanings%3A%0D%0A%E2%80%93+%E2%80%98antiquity%E2%80%99%2C+i.e.+a+thing+belonging+to+an+ancient+epoch%2C%0D%0A%E2%80%93+%E2%80%98antique%E2%80%99%2C+i.e.+a+memorial+of+classic+antiquity%2C%0D%0A%E2%80%93+%E2%80%98seniority%E2%80%99%2C+i.e.+length+of+period+of+service+in+years.%0D%0AThe+words+with+the+same+textual+representation+but+different%0D%0Ameanings+are+called+homonymous+words%2C+or+homonyms%2C+with+respect%0D%0Ato+each+other%2C+and+the+phenomenon+itself+is+called+homonymy.+Larger%0D%0Afragments+of+texts%E2%80%94such+as+word+combinations+%28phrases%29+or%0D%0Asentences%E2%80%94can+also+be+homonymous.+Then+the+term+homonymous%0D%0Aexpressions+is+used.%0D%0ATo+explain+the+phenomenon+of+homonymy+in+more+detail%2C+we%0D%0Ashould+resort+again+to+the+strict+terms+lexeme+and+wordform%2C+rather%0D%0Athan+to+the+vague+term+word.+Then+we+can+distinguish+the+following%0D%0Aimportant+cases+of+homonymy%3A%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+Lexico-morphologic+homonymy%3A+two+wordforms+belong+to+two%0D%0Adifferent+lexemes.+This+is+the+most+general+case+of+homonymy.%0D%0AFor+example%2C+the+string+aviso+is+the+wordform+of+both+the+verb%0D%0AAVISAR+and+the+noun+AVISO.+The+wordform+clasificaci%C3%B3n+belong%0D%0Ato+both+the+lexeme+CLASIFICACI%C3%93N1+%E2%80%98process+of+classification%E2%80%99%0D%0Aand+the+lexeme+CLASIFICACI%C3%93N2+%E2%80%98result+of+classification%2C%E2%80%99%0D%0Athough+the+wordform+clasificaciones+belongs+only+to+CLASIFICACI%C3%93N2%2C%0D%0Asince+CLASIFICACI%C3%93N1+does+not+have+the+plural%0D%0Aform.+It+should+be+noted+that+it+is+not+relevant+whether+the+name%0D%0Aof+the+lexeme+coincides+with+the+specific+homonymous+wordform%0D%0Aor+not.%0D%0AAnother+case+of+lexico-morphologic+homonymy+is+represented+by%0D%0Atwo+different+lexemes+whose+sets+of+wordforms+intersect+in+more%0D%0Athan+one+wordforms.+For+example%2C+the+lexemes+RODAR+and%0D%0ARUEDA+cover+two+homonymous+wordforms%2C+rueda+and+ruedas%3B%0D%0Athe+lexemes+IR+and+SER+have+a+number+of+wordforms+in+common%3A%0D%0Afui%2C+fuiste%2C+...%2C+fueron.%0D%0ALANGUAGE+AS+A+MEANING+%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BCambria+Math%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E%E2%87%94%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BTimes+New+Roman%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E+TEXT+TRANSFORMER%0D%0A105%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+Purely+lexical+homonymy%3A+two+or+more+lexemes+have+the+same%0D%0Asets+of+wordforms%2C+like+Spanish+REAL1+%E2%80%98real%E2%80%99+and+REAL2+%E2%80%98royal%E2%80%99%0D%0A%28the+both+have+the+same+wordform+set+%7Breal%2C+reales%7D%29+or%0D%0AQUERER1+%E2%80%98to+wish%2C%E2%80%99+QUERER2+%E2%80%98to+like%2C%E2%80%99+and+QUERER3+%E2%80%98to+love.%E2%80%99%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+Morpho-syntactic+homonymy%3A+the+whole+sets+of+wordforms+are%0D%0Athe+same+for+two+or+more+lexemes%2C+but+these+lexemes+differ+in%0D%0Ameaning+and+in+one+or+more+morpho-syntactic+properties.+For+example%2C%0D%0ASpanish+lexemes+%28el%29+frente+%E2%80%98front%E2%80%99+and+%28la%29+frente+%E2%80%98forehead%E2%80%99%0D%0Adiffer%2C+in+addition+to+meaning%2C+in+gender%2C+which+influences%0D%0Asyntactical+properties+of+the+lexemes.%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+Purely+morphologic+homonymy%3A+two+or+more+wordforms+are+different%0D%0Amembers+of+the+wordform+set+for+the+same+lexeme.+For+example%2C%0D%0Af%C3%A1ciles+is+the+wordform+for+both+masculine+plural+and%0D%0Afeminine+plural+of+the+Spanish+adjective+F%C3%81CIL+%E2%80%98easy.%E2%80%99+We%0D%0Ashould+admit+this+type+of+homonymy%2C+since+wordforms+of+Spanish%0D%0Aadjectives+generally+differ+in+gender+%28e.g.%2C+nuevos%2C+nuevas%0D%0A%E2%80%98new%E2%80%99%29.%0D%0AResolution+of+all+these+kinds+of+homonymy+is+performed+by+the%0D%0Ahuman+listener+or+reader+according+to+the+context+of+the+wordform%0D%0Aor+based+on+the+extralinguistic+situation+in+which+this+form+is+used.%0D%0AIn+general%2C+the+reader+or+listener+does+not+even+take+notice+of+any%0D%0Aambiguity.+The+corresponding+mental+operations+are+immediate+and%0D%0Avery+effective.+However%2C+resolution+of+such+ambiguity+by+computer%0D%0Arequires+sophisticated+methods.%0D%0AIn+common+opinion%2C+the+resolution+of+homonymy+%28and+ambiguity%0D%0Ain+general%29+is+one+of+the+most+difficult+problems+of+computational%0D%0Alinguistics+and+must+be+dealt+with+as+an+essential+and+integral+part+of%0D%0Athe+language-understanding+process.%0D%0AWithout+automatic+homonymy+resolution%2C+all+the+attempts+to%0D%0Aautomatically+%E2%80%9Cunderstand%E2%80%9D+natural+language+will+be+highly+errorprone%0D%0Aand+have+rather+limited+utility.%0D%0A106+COMPUTATIONAL+LINGUISTICS+AND+LINGUISTIC+MODELS%0D%0AMORE+ON+HOMONYMY%0D%0AIn+the+field+of+computational+linguistics%2C+homonymous+lexemes+usually%0D%0Aform+separate+entries+in+dictionaries.+Linguistic+analyzers+must%0D%0Aresolve+the+homonymy+automatically%2C+by+choosing+the+correct+option%0D%0Aamong+those+described+in+the+dictionary.%0D%0AFor+formal+distinguishing+of+homonyms%2C+their+description+in+conventional%0D%0Adictionaries+is+usually+divided+into+several+subentries.+The%0D%0Anames+of+lexical+homonyms+are+supplied+with+the+indices+%28numbers%29%0D%0Aattached+to+the+words+in+their+standard+dictionary+form%2C+just+as+we%0D%0Ado+it+in+this+book.+Of+course%2C+in+text+generation%2C+when+the+program%0D%0Acompiles+a+text+containing+such+words%2C+the+indices+are+eliminated.%0D%0AThe+purely+lexical+homonymy+is+maybe+the+most+difficult+to+resolve%0D%0Asince+at+the+morphologic+stage+of+text+processing+it+is+impossible%0D%0Ato+determine+what+homonym+is+true+in+this+context.+Since+morphologic%0D%0Aconsiderations+are+useless%2C+it+is+necessary+to+process+the%0D%0Ahypotheses+about+several+homonyms+in+parallel.%0D%0AConcerning+similarity+of+meaning+of+different+lexical+homonyms%2C%0D%0Avarious+situations+can+be+observed+in+any+language.+In+some+cases%2C%0D%0Asuch+homonyms+have+no+elements+of+meaning+in+common+at+all%2C+like%0D%0Athe+Spanish+REAL1+%E2%80%98real%E2%80%99+and+REAL2+%E2%80%98royal.%E2%80%99+In+other+cases%2C+the+intersection%0D%0Aof+meaning+is+obvious%2C+like+in+QUERER2+%E2%80%98to+like%E2%80%99+and%0D%0AQUERER3+%E2%80%98to+love%2C%E2%80%99+or+CLASIFICACI%C3%93N1+%E2%80%98process+of+classification%E2%80%99%0D%0Aand+CLASIFICACI%C3%93N2+%E2%80%98result+of+classification.%E2%80%99+In+the+latter+cases%2C%0D%0Athe+relation+can+be+exposed+through+the+decomposition+of+meanings%0D%0Aof+the+homonyms+lexemes.+The+cases+in+which+meanings+intersect%0D%0Aare+referred+to+in+general+linguistics+as+polysemy.%0D%0AFor+theoretical+purposes%2C+we+can+refer+the+whole+set+of+homonymous%0D%0Alexemes+connected+in+their+meaning+as+vocable.+For+example%2C%0D%0Awe+may+introduce+the+vocable+%7BQUERER1%2C+QUERER2%2C+QUERER3%7D.%0D%0AOr+else+we+can+take+united+lexeme%2C+which+is+called+polysemic+one.%0D%0AIn+computational+linguistics%2C+the+intricate+semantic+structures+of%0D%0Avarious+lexemes+are+usually+ignored.+Thus%2C+similarity+in+meaning+is%0D%0Aignored+too.%0D%0ALANGUAGE+AS+A+MEANING+%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BCambria+Math%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E%E2%87%94%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BTimes+New+Roman%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E+TEXT+TRANSFORMER%0D%0A107%0D%0ANevertheless%2C+for+purely+technical+purposes%2C+sets+of+any+homonymous%0D%0Alexemes%2C+no+matter+whether+they+are+connected+in+meaning+or%0D%0Anot%2C+can+be+considered.+They+might+be+referred+as+pseudo-vocables.%0D%0AFor+example%2C+the+pseudo-vocable+REAL+%3D+%7BREAL1%2C+REAL2%7D+can+be%0D%0Aintroduced.%0D%0AA+more+versatile+approach+to+handle+polysemy+in+computational%0D%0Alinguistics+has+been+developed+in+recent+years+using+object-oriented%0D%0Aideas.+Polysemic+lexemes+are+represented+as+one+superclass+that+reflects%0D%0Athe+common+part+of+their+meaning%2C+and+a+number+of+subclasses%0D%0Athen+reflect+their+semantic+differences.%0D%0AA+serious+complication+for+computational+linguistics+is+that+new%0D%0Asenses+of+old+words+are+constantly+being+created+in+natural+language.%0D%0AThe+older+words+are+used+in+new+meanings%2C+for+new+situations%0D%0Aor+in+new+contexts.+It+has+been+observed+that+natural+language%0D%0Ahas+the+property+of+self-enrichment+and+thus+is+very+productive.%0D%0AThe+ways+of+the+enrichment+of+language+are+rather+numerous%2C+and%0D%0Athe+main+of+them+are+the+following%3A%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+A+former+lexeme+is+used+in+a+metaphorical+way.+For+example%2C%0D%0Anumerous+nouns+denoting+a+process+are+used+in+many+languages%0D%0Ato+refer+also+to+a+result+of+this+process+%28cf.+Spanish+declaraci%C3%B3n%2C%0D%0Apublicaci%C3%B3n%2C+interpretaci%C3%B3n%2C+etc.%29.+The+semantic+proximity+is+thus%0D%0Aexploited.+For+another+example%2C+the+Spanish+word+est%C3%A9tica+%E2%80%98esthetics%E2%80%99%0D%0Arather+recently+has+acquired+the+meaning+of+heir-dressing%0D%0Asaloon+in+Mexico.+Since+highly+professional+heir+dressing+really%0D%0Aachieves+esthetic+goals%2C+the+semantic+proximity+is+also+evident%0D%0Ahere.+The+problem+of+resolution+of+metaphorical+homonymy+has%0D%0Abeen+a+topic+of+much+research+%5B51%5D.%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+A+former+lexeme+is+used+in+a+metonymical+way.+Some+proximity%0D%0Ain+place%2C+form%2C+configuration%2C+function%2C+or+situation+is+used+for%0D%0Ametonymy.+As+the+first+example%2C+the+Spanish+words+lentes%0D%0A%E2%80%98lenses%2C%E2%80%99+espejuelos+%E2%80%98glasses%2C%E2%80%99+and+gafas+%E2%80%98hooks%E2%80%99+are+used+in+the%0D%0Ameaning+%E2%80%98spectacles.%E2%80%99+Thus%2C+a+part+of+a+thing+gives+the+name+to%0D%0Athe+whole+thing.+As+the+second+example%2C+in+many+languages+the%0D%0Aname+of+an+organization+with+a+stable+residence+can+be+used+to%0D%0A108+COMPUTATIONAL+LINGUISTICS+AND+LINGUISTIC+MODELS%0D%0Adesignate+its+seat.+For+another+example%2C+Ha+llegado+a+la+universidad%0D%0Ameans+that+the+person+arrived+at+the+building+or+the+campus%0D%0Aof+the+university.+As+the+third+example%2C+the+Spanish+word+pluma%0D%0A%E2%80%98feather%E2%80%99+is+used+also+as+%E2%80%98pen.%E2%80%99+As+not+back+ago+as+in+the+middle%0D%0Aof+ninth+century%2C+feathers+were+used+for+writing%2C+and+then+the%0D%0Anewly+invented+tool+for+writing+had+kept+by+several+languages+as%0D%0Athe+name+of+its+functional+predecessor.%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+A+new+lexeme+is+loaned+from+a+foreign+language.+Meantime%2C+the%0D%0Aformer%2C+%E2%80%9Cnative%2C%E2%80%9D+lexeme+can+remain+in+the+language%2C+with+essentially%0D%0Athe+same+meaning.+For+example%2C+English+had+adopted+the%0D%0ARussian+word+sputnik+in+1957%2C+but+the+term+artificial+satellite+is%0D%0Aused+as+before.%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+Commonly+used+abbreviations+became+common+words%2C+loosing%0D%0Atheir+marking+by+uppercase+letters.+For+example%2C+the+Spanish%0D%0Awords+sida+and+ovni+are+used+now+more+frequently%2C+then+their%0D%0Asynonymous+counterparts+s%C3%ADndrome+de+inmunodeficiencia+adquirida%0D%0Aand+objeto+volante+no+identificado.%0D%0AOne+can+see+that+metaphors%2C+metonymies%2C+loans%2C+and+former+abbreviations%0D%0Abroaden+both+homonymy+and+synonymy+of+language.%0D%0AReturning+to+the+description+of+all+possible+senses+of+homonymous%0D%0Awords%2C+we+should+admit+that+this+problem+does+not+have+an%0D%0Aagreed+solution+in+lexicography.+This+can+be+proved+by+comparison%0D%0Aof+any+two+large+dictionaries.+Below%2C+given+are+two+entries+with+the%0D%0Asame+Spanish+lexeme+estante+%E2%80%98rack%2Fbookcase%2Fshelf%2C%E2%80%99+one+taken+from%0D%0Athe+Dictionary+of+Anaya+group+%5B22%5D+and+the+other+from+the+Dictionary%0D%0Aof+Royal+Academy+of+Spain+%28DRAE%29+%5B23%5D.%0D%0Aestante+%28in+Anaya+Dictionary%29%0D%0A1.+m.+Armario+sin+puertas+y+con+baldas.%0D%0A2.+m.+Balda%2C+anaquel.%0D%0A3.+m.+Cada+uno+de+los+pies+que+sostienen+la+armadura+de+algunas%0D%0Am%C3%A1quinas.%0D%0A4.+adj.+Parado%2C+inm%C3%B3vil.%0D%0ALANGUAGE+AS+A+MEANING+%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BCambria+Math%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E%E2%87%94%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BTimes+New+Roman%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E+TEXT+TRANSFORMER%0D%0A109%0D%0Aestante+%28in+DRAE%29%0D%0A1.+a.+p.+us.+de+estar.+Que+est%C3%A1+presente+o+permanente+en+un+lugar.%0D%0APedro%2C+ESTANTE+en+la+corte+romana.%0D%0A2.+adj.+Apl%C3%ADcase+al+ganado%2C+en+especial+lanar%2C+que+pasta+constantemente%0D%0Adentro+del+t%C3%A9rmino+jurisdiccional+en+que+est%C3%A1+amillarado.%0D%0A3.+D%C3%ADcese+del+ganadero+o+due%C3%B1o+de+este+ganado.%0D%0A4.+Mueble+con+anaqueles+o+entrepa%C3%B1os%2C+y+generalmente+sin+puertas%2C%0D%0Aque+s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ia+Math%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E%E2%87%94%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BTimes+New+Roman%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E+Text+transformer+%28see+Figure+IV.12%29.%0D%0AThe+knowledge+necessary+for+each+level+of+transformation+is+represented%0D%0Ain+computer+dictionaries+and+computer+grammars+%28see+Figure%0D%0AIV.13%29.+A+computer+dictionary+is+a+collection+of+information+on%0D%0Aeach+word%2C+and+thus+it+is+the+main+knowledge+base+of+a+text+processing%0D%0Asystem.+A+computer+grammar+is+a+set+of+rules+based+on+common%0D%0Aproperties+of+large+groups+of+words.+Hence%2C+the+grammar+rules+are%0D%0Aequally+applicable+to+many+words.%0D%0AThis+is+a+text+that+represents+the%0D%0Ameaning+shown+in+the+right+part+of+the%0D%0Apicture.+This+is+a+text+that+represents+the%0D%0Ameaning+shown+in+the+right+part+of+the%0D%0Apicture.+This+is+a+text+that+represents+the%0D%0Ameaning+shown+in+the+right+part+of+the%0D%0Apicture.+This+is+a+text+that+represents+the%0D%0Ameaning+shown+in+the+right+part+of+the%0D%0Apicture.+This+is+a+text+that+represents+the%0D%0Ameaning+shown+in+the+right+part+of+the%0D%0Apicture.+This+is+a+text+that+represents+the%0D%0Ameaning+shown+in+the+right+part+of+the%0D%0Apicture.+This+is+a+text+that+represents+the%0D%0Ameaning+shown+in+the+right+part+of+the%0D%0Apicture.+This+is+a+text+that+represents+the%0D%0Ameaning+shown+in+the+right+part+of+the%0D%0Apicture.+This+is+a+text+that+represents+the%0D%0Ameaning+shown+in+the+right+part+of+the%0D%0ALanguage%0D%0AText+Meaning%0D%0AMorphologic%0D%0Arepresentation%0D%0ASyntactic%0D%0Arepresentation%0D%0AMorphologic%0D%0Atransformer%0D%0ASyntactic%0D%0Atransformer%0D%0ASemantic%0D%0Atransformer%0D%0ASemanitc%0D%0Arepresentation%0D%0ASurface%0D%0Arepresentation%0D%0AFIGURE+IV.11.+Stages+of+transformation.%0D%0A112+COMPUTATIONAL+LINGUISTICS+AND+LINGUISTIC+MODELS%0D%0ASince+the+information+stored+in+the+dictionaries+for+each+lexeme+is%0D%0Aspecified+for+each+linguistic+level+separately%2C+program+developers%0D%0Aoften+distinguish+a+morphologic+dictionary+that+specifies+the+morphologic%0D%0Ainformation+for+each+word%2C+a+syntactic+dictionary%2C+and+a%0D%0Asemantic+dictionary%2C+as+in+Figure+IV.13.%0D%0AIn+contrast%2C+all+information+can+be+represented+in+one+dictionary%2C%0D%0Agiving+for+each+lexeme+all+the+necessary+data.+In+this+case%2C+the+dictionary%0D%0Aentry+for+each+lexeme+has+several+zones+that+give+the+properties%0D%0Aof+this+lexeme+at+the+given+linguistic+level%2C+i.e.%2C+a+morphologic%0D%0Azone%2C+syntactic+zone%2C+and+semantic+zone.%0D%0AClearly%2C+these+two+representations+of+the+dictionary+are+logically%0D%0Aequivalent.%0D%0AAccording+to+Figure+IV.13%2C+the+information+about+lexemes+is+distributed%0D%0Aamong+several+linguistic+levels.+In+Text%2C+there+are+only%0D%0Awordforms.+In+analysis%2C+lexemes+as+units+under+processing+are+involved%0D%0Aat+morphologic+level.+Then+they+are+used+at+surface+and+deep%0D%0Asyntactical+levels+and+at+last+disappeared+at+semantic+level%2C+giving%0D%0Aup+their+places+to+semantic+elements.+The+latter+elements+conserve%0D%0Athe+meaning+of+lexemes%2C+but+are+devoid+of+their+purely+grammatical%0D%0Aproperties%2C+such+as+part+of+speech+or+gender.+Hence%2C+we+can+conclude%0D%0Athat+there+is+no+level+in+the+Text+%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BCambria+Math%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E%E2%87%92%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BTimes+New+Roman%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E+Meaning+transformer%2C%0D%0Awhich+could+be+called+lexical.%0D%0ASyntactic+transformer%0D%0APre-syntactic%0D%0Atransformer%0D%0ASurface%0D%0Asyntactic%0D%0Atransformer%0D%0ADeep%0D%0ASyntactic%0D%0Atransformer%0D%0ALanguage%0D%0AFIGURE+IV.12.+Interlevel+processing.%0D%0ALANGUAGE+AS+A+MEANING+%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BCambria+Math%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E%E2%87%94%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BTimes+New+Roman%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E+TEXT+TRANSFORMER%0D%0A113%0D%0ATRANSLATION+AS+A+MULTISTAGE+TRANSFORMATION%0D%0AThe+task+of+translation+from+one+natural+language+to+another+is+a%0D%0Agood+illustration+of+multistage+transformation+of+linguistic+information.%0D%0ASuppose+there+is+a+text+in+a+language+A+that+is+to+be+translated+into%0D%0Alanguage+B.+As+we+have+already+argued%2C+word-by-word+translation%0D%0Aleads+to+very+poor+and+useless+results.+To+translate+the+text+with%0D%0Ahighest+possible+quality%2C+the+following+stages+of+transformation+are%0D%0Anecessary%3A%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+First+stage+of+analysis+starts+from+the+source+text+in+the+language%0D%0AA+and+gives+its+morphologic+representation+specific+for%0D%0Alanguage+A.%0D%0AThis+is+a+text+that+represents+the%0D%0Ameaning+shown+in+the+right+part+of+the%0D%0Apicture.+This+is+a+text+that+represents+the%0D%0Ameaning+shown+in+the+right+part+of+the%0D%0Apicture.+This+is+a+text+that+represents+the%0D%0Ameaning+shown+in+the+right+part+of+the%0D%0Apicture.+This+is+a+text+that+represents+the%0D%0Ameaning+shown+in+the+right+part+of+the%0D%0Apicture.+This+is+a+text+that+represents+the%0D%0Ameaning+shown+in+the+right+part+of+the%0D%0Apicture.+This+is+a+text+that+represents+the%0D%0Ameaning+shown+in+the+right+part+of+the%0D%0Apicture.+This+is+a+text+that+represents+the%0D%0Ameaning+shown+in+the+right+part+of+the%0D%0Apicture.+This+is+a+text+that+represents+the%0D%0Ameaning+shown+in+the+right+part+of+the%0D%0Apicture.+This+is+a+text+that+represents+the%0D%0Ameaning+shown+in+the+right+part+of+the%0D%0AMorph.%0D%0Atransformer%0D%0AMorph.%0D%0Adictionary%0D%0ASynt.%0D%0Atransformer%0D%0ASem.%0D%0Atransformer%0D%0ASynt.%0D%0Adictionary%0D%0ASem.%0D%0Adictionary%0D%0AMorph.%0D%0Arules%0D%0ASyntactic%0D%0Arules%0D%0AD+i+c+t+i+o+n+a+r+i+e+s%0D%0AG+r+a+m+m+a+r+s%0D%0ASemantic%0D%0Arules%0D%0AFIGURE+IV.13.+The+role+of+dictionaries+and+grammars+in+linguistic%0D%0Atransformations.%0D%0A114+COMPUTATIONAL+LINGUISTICS+AND+LINGUISTIC+MODELS%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+Second+stage+of+analysis+starts+from+the+morphologic+representation%0D%0Aand+gives+the+syntactic+representation+specific+for+language%0D%0AA.%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+Third+stage+of+analysis+starts+from+the+syntactic+representation%0D%0Aand+gives+some+level+of+semantic+representation.+The+latter+can%0D%0Abe+somewhat+specific+to+language+A%2C+i.e.%2C+not+universal%2C+so+that%0D%0Aadditional+intra-level+operations+of+%E2%80%9Cuniversalization%E2%80%9D+of+semantic%0D%0Arepresentation+may+be+necessary.%0D%0AThe+problem+is+that+currently+it+is+still+not+possible+to+reach+the%0D%0Atrue+semantic+representation%2C+i.e.%2C+the+true+level+of+Meaning%2C+consisting%0D%0Aof+the+universal+and+thus+standard+set+of+semes.+Therefore%2C+all%0D%0Apractical+systems+have+to+stop+this+series+of+transformations+at+some%0D%0Alevel%2C+as+deep+as+possible%2C+but+not+yet+at+that+of+universal+Meaning.%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+The+transfer+stage+replaces+the+labels%2C+i.e.%2C+of+the+conventional%0D%0Anames+of+the+concepts+in+language+A%2C+to+the+corresponding+labels%0D%0Aof+language+B.+The+result+is+the+corresponding+quasi-semantic%0D%0Alevel+of+representation+in+language+B.+In+some+cases%2C+additional%2C%0D%0Amore+complex+intra-level+operations+of+%E2%80%9Clocalization%E2%80%9D+are+necessary%0D%0Aat+this+stage.%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+First+stage+of+synthesis+starts+from+the+quasi-semantic+representation%0D%0Awith+few+features+specific+for+the+language+B%2C+and+gives+the%0D%0Asyntactic+representation+quite+specific+for+this+language.%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+Second+stage+of+synthesis+starts+from+the+syntactic+representation%2C%0D%0Aand+gives+the+morphologic+representation+specific+for+language+B.%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+Third+stage+of+synthesis+starts+from+the+morphologic+representation%2C%0D%0Aand+gives+the+target+text+in+language+B.%0D%0AIn+the+initial+stages%2C+the+transformations+go+to+the+deep+levels+of%0D%0Athe+language%2C+and+then%2C+in+the+last+stages%2C+return+to+the+surface%2C+with%0D%0Athe+ultimate+result+in+textual+form+once+more.+The+deeper+the+level%0D%0Areached%2C+the+smaller+the+difference+between+the+representations+of%0D%0Athis+level+in+both+languages+A+and+B.+At+the+level+of+Meaning%2C+there%0D%0Ais+no+difference+at+all+%28except+maybe+for+the+labels+at+semes%29.+The%0D%0ALANGUAGE+AS+A+MEANING+%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BCambria+Math%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E%E2%87%94%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BTimes+New+Roman%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E+TEXT+TRANSFORMER%0D%0A115%0D%0Adeeper+the+level+reached+during+the+transformations%2C+the+smaller+the%0D%0Adifferences+that+have+to+be+ignored%2C+and+the+better+the+quality+of%0D%0Atranslation+%28see+Figure+IV.14%29.+This+scheme+shows+only+the+general%0D%0Aidea+of+all+these+representations.%0D%0AThe+given+scheme+works+for+an+arbitrary+pair+of+natural+languages.%0D%0AHowever%2C+if+the+two+languages+are+very+similar+in+their%0D%0Astructure%2C+the+deeper+stages+of+the+transformation+might+not+be+necessary.%0D%0AFor+example%2C+if+we+translate+from+Spanish+into+Portuguese%2C+then%2C%0D%0Abecause+these+two+languages+differ+mainly+in+their+lexicon%2C+it+can+be%0D%0Asufficient+to+use+only+the+first+stage+of+analysis+and+the+last+stage+of%0D%0Asynthesis%2C+just+replacing+each+Spanish+word+by+the+corresponding%0D%0APortuguese+one+on+the+morphologic+level.%0D%0AIn+Figure+IV.14+this+would+correspond+then+to+the+%E2%80%9Chorizontal%E2%80%9D%0D%0Atransition+directly+on+this+level.%0D%0A%3F%0D%0AMorphological%0D%0Alevel%0D%0ASyntactic%0D%0Alevel%0D%0AText%0D%0Alevel%0D%0ASemantic%0D%0Alevel%0D%0AThe+Meaning%2C%0D%0Ayet+unreachable%0D%0ALanguage+A+Language+B%0D%0AFIGURE+IV.14.+Translation+as+multistage+transformation.%0D%0A116+COMPUTATIONAL+LINGUISTICS+AND+LINGUISTIC+MODELS%0D%0ATWO+SIDES+OF+A+SIGN%0D%0AThe+notion+of+sign%2C+so+important+for+linguistics%2C+was+first+proposed%0D%0Ain+a+science+called+semiotics.+The+sign+was+defined+as+an+entity+consisting%0D%0Aof+two+components%2C+the+signifier+and+the+signified.+Let+us%0D%0Afirst+consider+some+examples+of+non-linguistic+signs+taken+from+everyday%0D%0Alife.%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+If+you+see+a+picture+with+a+stylized+image+of+a+man+in+a+wheelchair%0D%0Aon+the+wall+in+the+subway%2C+you+know+that+the+place+under%0D%0Athe+image+is+intended+for+disabled+people.+This+is+a+typical+case%0D%0Aof+a+sign%3A+the+picture+itself%2C+i.e.%2C+a+specific+figure+in+contrasting%0D%0Acolors%2C+is+the+signifier%2C+while+the+suggestion+to+assist+the+handicapped%0D%0Apersons+is+the+signified.%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+Twenty+Mexican+pesos+have+two+equally+possible+signifiers%3A+a%0D%0Acoin+with+a+portrait+of+Octavio+Paz+and+a+piece+of+paper+with+a%0D%0Aportrait+of+Benito+Ju%C3%A1rez.+The+signified+of+both+of+them+is+the%0D%0Avalue+of+twenty+pesos.+Clearly%2C+neither+of+them+has+this+value%2C+but%0D%0Ainstead+they+denote+it.+Thus%2C+they+are+two+different+but+synonymous%0D%0Asigns.%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+Raising+one%E2%80%99s+hand+%28this+gesture+is+the+signifier%29+can+have+several%0D%0Adifferent+signifieds%2C+for+instance%3A+%281%29+an+intention+to+answer+the%0D%0Ateacher%E2%80%99s+question+in+a+classroom%2C+%282%29+a+vote+for+or+against+a+proposal%0D%0Aat+a+meeting%2C+%283%29+an+intention+to+call+a+taxi+in+the+street%2C+etc.%0D%0AThese+are+three+different%2C+though+homonymous%2C+signs.%0D%0ALINGUISTIC+SIGN%0D%0AThe+notion+of+linguistic+sign+was+introduced+by+Ferdinand+de+Saussure.%0D%0ABy+linguistic+signs%2C+we+mean+the+entities+used+in+natural+languages%2C%0D%0Asuch+as+morphs%2C+lexemes%2C+and+phrases.%0D%0ALinguistic+signs+have+several+specific+properties%2C+the+most+obvious%0D%0Aof+which+is+that+they+are+to+be+combined+together+into+larger%0D%0ALANGUAGE+AS+A+MEANING+%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BCambria+Math%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E%E2%87%94%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BTimes+New+Roman%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E+TEXT+TRANSFORMER%0D%0A117%0D%0Asigns+and+each+one+can+in+turn+consist+of+several+smaller+signs.%0D%0ANatural+language+can+be+viewed+as+a+system+of+linguistic+signs.%0D%0AAs+another+property+of+linguistic+sign%2C+its+signifier+at+the+surface%0D%0Alevel+consists+of+elementary+parts%2C+phonetic+symbols+in+the+phonetic%0D%0Atranscription+or+letters+in+the+written+form+of+language.+These+parts%0D%0Ado+not+have+any+signified+of+their+own%3A+a+letter+has+no+meaning%2C+but%0D%0Acertain+strings+of+letters+do+have+it.%0D%0AWe+have+already+mentioned+other+notation+systems+to+represent%0D%0Awords+of+natural+language%2C+such+as+hieroglyphic+writing.+Each+hieroglyph%0D%0Ausually+has+its+own+meaning%2C+so+a+hieroglyph+is+a+linguistic%0D%0Asign.+The+gestures+in+the+sign+language+for+deaf+people+in+some%0D%0Acases+do+have+there+own+meanings%2C+like+hieroglyphs%2C+and+in+other%0D%0Acases+do+not+have+any+meaning+of+their+own+and+serve+like+letters.%0D%0ALINGUISTIC+SIGN+IN+THE+MMT%0D%0AIn+addition+to+the+two+well-known+components+of+a+sign%2C+in+the%0D%0AMeaning+%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BCambria+Math%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E%E2%87%94%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BTimes+New+Roman%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E+Text+Theory+yet+another%2C+a+third+component+of+a+sign%2C+is%0D%0Aconsidered+essential%3A+a+record+about+its+ability+or+inability+to+combine%0D%0Awith+other+specific+signs.+This+additional+component+is+called%0D%0Asyntactics+of+the+linguistic+sign.+For+example%2C+the+ending+morph+-ar%0D%0Afor+Spanish+infinitives+has+the+same+signified+as+-er+and+-ir.+However%2C%0D%0Aonly+one+of+them+can+be+used+in+the+wordform+hablar%2C+due+to%0D%0Athe+syntactics+of+these+three+endings%2C+as+well+as+to+the+syntactics+of%0D%0Athe+stem+habl-.+We+can+imagine+a+linguistic+sign+as+it+is+shown+on%0D%0AFigure+IV.15.%0D%0AThus%2C+syntactics+of+linguistic+signs+helps+to+choose+one+correct%0D%0Asign+from+a+set+of+synonymous+signs%2C+to+be+used+in+a+specific+context.%0D%0AFor+example%2C+we+choose+the+ending+-ar+for+the+stem+habl-+since%0D%0Ait+does+accept+just+it.+Beyond+that%2C+syntactics+of+linguistic+signs%0D%0Ahelps+us+to+disambiguate+the+signs%2C+i.e.%2C+to+decide+which+of+the+homonymous%0D%0Asigns+is+used+in+a+specific+context.%0D%0AFor+the+extralinguistic+example+given+above%2C+the+classroom+is+the%0D%0Acontext%2C+in+which+we+interpret+the+raising+of+one%E2%80%99s+hand+as+the+intention%0D%0Ato+say+something+rather+than+to+call+a+taxi.%0D%0A118+COMPUTATIONAL+LINGUISTICS+AND+LINGUISTIC+MODELS%0D%0ASimilarly%2C+the+presence+of+the+Spanish+stem+salt-+is+sufficient+to%0D%0Ainterpret+the+-as+ending+as+present+tense%2C+second+person%2C+singular+in%0D%0Asaltas%2C+rather+than+feminine%2C+plural+as+in+the+presence+of+the+stem%0D%0Aroj-%3A+rojas.%0D%0ALINGUISTIC+SIGN+IN+HPSG%0D%0AIn+Head-driven+Phrase+Structure+Grammar+a+linguistic+sign%2C+as+usually%2C%0D%0Aconsists+of+two+main+components%2C+a+signifier+and+a+signified.%0D%0AThe+signifier+is+defined+as+a+phoneme+string+%28or+a+sequence+of+such%0D%0Astrings%29.+Taking+into+account+the+correspondence+between+acoustic%0D%0Aand+written+forms+of+language%2C+such+signifier+can+be+identified+as%0D%0Aconceptually+coinciding+with+elements+of+Text+in+the+MTT.%0D%0AAs+to+the+signified%2C+an+object+of+special+type+SYNSEM+is+introduced%0D%0Afor+it.+An+object+of+this+type+is+a+structure+%28namely%2C+a+labeled%0D%0Atree+called+feature+structure%29+with+arcs+representing+features+of+various%0D%0Alinguistic+levels%3A+morphologic%2C+syntactic%2C+and+semantic%2C+in+a%0D%0Amixture.+For+a+minimal+element+of+the+text%2C+i.e.%2C+for+a+wordform%2C%0D%0Athese+features+show%3A%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+How+to+combine+this+wordform+with+the+other+wordforms+in+the%0D%0Acontext+when+forming+syntactic+structures%3F%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+What+logical+predicate+this+word+can+be+a+part+of%3F%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+What+role+this+word+can+play+in+this+predicate%3F%0D%0ASignifying%0D%0ASignified%0D%0ASyntactics%0D%0AFIGURE+IV.15.+Syntactics+of+a+linguistic+sign.%0D%0ALANGUAGE+AS+A+MEANING+%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BCambria+Math%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E%E2%87%94%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BTimes+New+Roman%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E+TEXT+TRANSFORMER%0D%0A119%0D%0ASimple+considerations+show+that+SYNSEM+in+HPSG+unites+the%0D%0Aproperties+of+Meaning+and+syntactics+of+a+sign+as+defined+in+the%0D%0Aframework+of+the+MTT%2C+i.e.%2C+SYNSEM+covers+syntactics+plus+semantics.%0D%0AHence%2C+if+all+relevant+linguistic+facts+are+taken+into+consideration%0D%0Aequally+and+properly+by+the+two+approaches%2C+both+definitions+of%0D%0Athe+linguistic+sign%2C+in+HPSG+and+MTT%2C+should+lead+to+the+same+results.%0D%0AARE+SIGNIFIERS+GIVEN+BY+NATURE+OR+BY+CONVENTION%3F%0D%0AThe+notion+of+sign+appeared+rather+recently.+However%2C+the+notions%0D%0Aequivalent+to+the+signifier+and+the+signified+were+discussed+in+science%0D%0Afrom+the+times+of+the+ancient+Greeks.+For+several+centuries%2C+it%0D%0Ahas+been+debated+whether+the+signifiers+of+things+are+given+to+us+by%0D%0Anature+or+by+human+convention.%0D%0AThe+proponents+of+the+first+point+of+view+argued+that+some+words%0D%0Ain+any+language+directly+arose+from+onomatopoeia%2C+or+sound+imitation.%0D%0AIndeed%2C+we+denote+the+sounds+produced+by+a+cat+with+verb+mew%0D%0Aor+meow+in+English%2C+maullar+in+Spanish%2C+and+miaukat%E2%80%99+in+Russian.%0D%0AHence%2C+according+to+them%2C+common+signifiers+lead+to+similar+signifieds%2C%0D%0Athus+creating+a+material+link+between+the+two+aspects+of+the%0D%0Asign.%0D%0AThe+opponents+of+this+view+objected+that+only+a+minority+of+words%0D%0Ain+any+language+takes+their+origin+from+such+imitation%2C+all+the+other%0D%0Awords+being+quite+arbitrary.+For+example%2C+there+is+no+resemblance%0D%0Abetween+Spanish+pared%2C+English+wall%2C+and+Russian+stena%2C+though+all%0D%0Aof+them+signify+the+same+entity.+Meanwhile%2C+the+phonetic+similarity%0D%0Aof+the+German+Wand+to+the+English+wall%2C+or+the+French+paroi+to+the%0D%0ASpanish+pared%2C+or+the+Bulgarian+stena+to+the+Russian+stena+are%0D%0Acaused+by+purely+historic+reasons%2C+i.e.%2C+by+the+common+origin+of%0D%0Athose+pairs+of+languages.%0D%0AThe+latter+point+of+view+has+become+prevalent%2C+and+now+nobody%0D%0Alooks+for+material+links+between+the+two+sides+of+linguistic+signs.%0D%0AThus%2C+a+linguistic+sign+is+considered+a+human+convention+that+assigns%0D%0Aspecific+meanings+to+some+material+things+such+as+strings+of%0D%0A120+COMPUTATIONAL+LINGUISTICS+AND+LINGUISTIC+MODELS%0D%0Aletters%2C+sequences+of+sounds%2C+pictures+in+hieroglyphic+writing+or+gestures%0D%0Ain+sign+language.%0D%0AGENERATIVE%2C+MTT%2C+AND+CONSTRAINT+IDEAS+IN+COMPARISON%0D%0AIn+this+book%2C+three+major+approaches+to+linguistic+description+have%0D%0Abeen+discussed+till+now%2C+with+different+degree+of+detail%3A+%281%29+generative%0D%0Aapproach+developed+by+N.+Chomsky%2C+%282%29+the+Meaning+%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BCambria+Math%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E%E2%87%94%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BTimes+New+Roman%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E+Text%0D%0Aapproach+developed+by+I.+Mel%E2%80%99%C4%8Duk%2C+and+%283%29+constraint-based+approach%0D%0Aexemplified+by+the+HPSG+theory.+In+the+ideal+case%2C+they+produce%0D%0Aequivalent+results+on+identical+language+inputs.+However%2C+they%0D%0Ahave+deep+differences+in+the+underlying+ideas.+In+addition%2C+they+use%0D%0Asimilar+terminology%2C+but+with+different+meaning%2C+which+may+be+misleading.%0D%0AIn+this+section%2C+we+will+compare+their+underlying+ideas+and%0D%0Athe+terminology.+To+make+so+different+paradigms+comparable%2C+we%0D%0Awill+take+only+a+bird%E2%80%99s-eye+view+of+them%2C+emphasizing+the+crucial%0D%0Acommonalities+and+differences%2C+but+in+no+way+pretending+to+a+more%0D%0Adeep+description+of+any+of+these+approaches+just+now.%0D%0APerhaps+the+most+important+commonality+of+the+three+approaches%0D%0Ais+that+they+can+be+viewed+in+terms+of+linguistic+signs.+All+of+them%0D%0Adescribe+the+structure+of+the+signs+of+the+given+language.+All+of%0D%0Athem+are+used+in+computational+practice+to+find+the+Meaning+corresponding%0D%0Ato+a+given+Text+and+vice+versa.+However%2C+the+way+they%0D%0Adescribe+the+signs+of+language%2C+and+as+a+consequence+the+way+those%0D%0Adescriptions+are+used+to+build+computer+programs%2C+is+different.+Generative%0D%0Aidea.+The+initial+motivation+for+the+generative+idea+was+the%0D%0Afact+that+describing+the+language+is+much+more+difficult%2C+laborconsuming%2C%0D%0Aand+error-prone+task+than+writing+a+program+that+uses%0D%0Asuch+a+description+for+text+analysis.+Thus%2C+the+formalism+for+description%0D%0Aof+language+should+be+oriented+to+the+process+of+describing+and%0D%0Anot+to+the+process+of+practical+application.+Once+created%2C+such+a+description%0D%0Acan+be+applied+somehow.%0D%0ANow%2C+what+is+to+describe+a+given+language%3F+In+the+view+of+generative%0D%0Atradition%2C+it+means%2C+roughly+speaking%2C+to+list+all+signs+in+it+%28in%0D%0Afact%2C+this+is+frequently+referred+to+as+generative+idea%29.+Clearly%2C+for+a%0D%0ALANGUAGE+AS+A+MEANING+%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BCambria+Math%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E%E2%87%94%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BTimes+New+Roman%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E+TEXT+TRANSFORMER%0D%0A121%0D%0Anatural+language+it+is+impossible+to+literally+list+all+signs+in+it%2C+since%0D%0Atheir+number+is+infinite.+Thus%2C+more+strictly+speaking%2C+a+generative%0D%0Agrammar+describes+an+algorithm+that+lists+only+the+correct+signs+of%0D%0Athe+given+language%2C+and+lists+them+all%E2%80%94in+the+sense+that+any+given%0D%0Asign+would+appear+in+its+output+after+a+some+time%2C+perhaps+long%0D%0Aenough.+The+very+name+generative+grammar+is+due+to+that+it+describes%0D%0Athe+process+of+generating+all+language+signs%2C+one+by+one+at+a%0D%0Atime.%0D%0AThere+can+be+many+ways+to+generate+language+signs.+The+specific%0D%0Akind+of+generative+grammars+suggested+by+N.+Chomsky+constructs%0D%0Aeach+sign+gradually%2C+through+a+series+of+intermediate%2C+half-finished%0D%0Asign+%E2%80%9Cembryos%E2%80%9D+of+different+degree+of+maturity+%28see+Figure+IV.16%29.%0D%0AAll+of+them+are+built+starting+from+the+same+%E2%80%9Cegg-cell%E2%80%9D+called+initial%0D%0Asymbol%2C+which+is+not+a+sign+of+the+given+language.+A+very+simple%0D%0Aexample+of+the+rules+for+such+gradual+building+is+given+on+the+pages%0D%0A35+to+39%3B+in+this+example%2C+the+tree+structure+can+be+roughly+considered%0D%0Athe+Meaning+of+the+corresponding+string.%0D%0AWhere+the+infinity+of+generated+signs+comes+from%3F+At+each+step%2C%0D%0Acalled+derivation%2C+the+generation+can+be+continued+in+different+ways%2C%0D%0Awith+any+number+of+derivation+steps.+Thus%2C+there+exist+an+infinite%0D%0Anumber+of+signs+with+very+long+derivation+paths%2C+though+for+each%0D%0Aspecific+sign+its+derivation+process+is+finite.%0D%0AHowever%2C+all+this+generation+process+is+only+imaginable%2C+and%0D%0Aserves+for+the+formalism+of+description+of+language.+It+is+not%E2%80%94and+is%0D%0AInitial%0D%0Asymbol+embryo...+...better...+...almost...+...ready%21+Linguistic+sign.%0D%0ATransformation%0D%0ADeep+structure+Derivations+Surface+structure%0D%0AText%0D%0AMeaning%0D%0AFIGURE+IV.16.+Generative+idea.%0D%0A122+COMPUTATIONAL+LINGUISTICS+AND+LINGUISTIC+MODELS%0D%0Anot+intended+to+be%E2%80%94applied+in+practice+for+the+generation+of+an+infinitely%0D%0Along+list+of+language+expressions%2C+which+would+be+senseless.%0D%0AThe+use+of+the+description%E2%80%94once+created%E2%80%94for+passing+from+Text+to%0D%0AMeaning+and+vice+versa+is+indirect.+A+program+called+parser+is+developed%0D%0Aby+a+mathematician+%28not+a+linguist%29+by+means+of+automatic%0D%0A%E2%80%9Creversing%E2%80%9D+of+the+original+description+of+the+generative+process.%0D%0AThis+program+can+answer+the+questions%3A+What+signs+would+it+generate%0D%0Athat+have+the+given+Text+as+the+signifier%3F+What+signs+would+it%0D%0Agenerate+that+have+the+given+Meaning+as+signified%3F+%28See%0D%0AFigure+IV.17.%29%0D%0AThe+parser+does+not+really+try+to+generate+any+signs%2C+but+instead%0D%0Asolves+such+an+equation+using+the+data+structures+and+algorithms%0D%0Aquite+different+from+the+original+description+of+the+generating+process.%0D%0AThe+result+produced+by+such+a+black+box+is%2C+however%2C+exactly+the%0D%0Asame%3A+given+a+Text%2C+the+parser+finds+such+Meaning+that+the+corresponding%0D%0Asign+belongs+to+the+given+language%2C+i.e.%2C+would+be+generated%0D%0Aby+the+imaginable+generation+algorithm.+However%2C+the+description%0D%0Aof+the+imaginable+generation+process+is+much+clearer+than+the%0D%0Adescription+of+the+internal+structures+automatically+built+by+the%0D%0Aparser+for+the+practical+applications.%0D%0AMeaning+%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BCambria+Math%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E%E2%87%94%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BTimes+New+Roman%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E+Text+idea.+As+any+other+grammar%2C+it+is+aimed+at+the%0D%0Apractical+application+in+language+analysis+and+synthesis.+Unlike%0D%0Agenerative+grammar%2C+it+does+not+concentrate+on+enumeration+of+all%0D%0Apossible+language+signs%2C+but+instead+on+the+laws+of+the+correspondence%0D%0Abetween+the+Text+and+the+Meaning+in+any+sign+of+the+given%0D%0AParser+%28black+box%29%0D%0AText%0D%0AMeaning%0D%0AFIGURE+IV.17.+Practical+application+of+the+generative+idea.%0D%0ALANGUAGE+AS+A+MEANING+%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BCambria+Math%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E%E2%87%94%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BTimes+New+Roman%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E+TEXT+TRANSFORMER%0D%0A123%0D%0Alanguage.+Whereas+for+a+given+text%2C+a+generative+grammar+can+answer%0D%0Athe+question+Do+any+signs+with+such+Text+exist%2C+and+if+so%2C+what%0D%0Aare+their+Meanings%3F%2C+a+the+MTT+grammar+only+guarantees+the+answer%0D%0Ato+the+question+If+signs+with+such+Text+existed%2C+what+would+be%0D%0Atheir+Meanings%3F%0D%0AIn+practice%2C+the+MTT+models+usually+can+distinguish+existing+signs%0D%0Afrom+ungrammatical+ones%2C+but+mainly+as+a+side+effect.+This+makes%0D%0Athe+MTT+models+more+robust+in+parsing.%0D%0AAnother+idea+underlying+the+MTT+approach+is+that+linguists+are%0D%0Agood+enough+at+the+intuitive+understanding+of+the+correspondence%0D%0Abetween+Texts+and+Meanings%2C+and+can+describe+such+correspondences%0D%0Adirectly.+This+allows+avoiding+the+complications+of+generative%0D%0Agrammars+concerning+the+reversion+of+rules.+Instead%2C+the+rules%0D%0Aare+applied+to+the+corresponding+data+structures+directly+as+written%0D%0Adown+by+the+linguist+%28such+property+of+a+grammar+is+sometimes%0D%0Acalled+type+transparency+%5B47%5D%29.+Direct+application+of+the+rules%0D%0Agreatly+simplifies+debugging+of+the+grammar.+In+addition%2C+the+direct%0D%0Adescription+of+the+correspondence+between+Text+and+Meaning+is%0D%0Asupposed+to+better+suite+the+linguistic+reality+and+thus+results+in+less%0D%0Anumber+of+rules.%0D%0ASimilarly+to+the+situation+with+generative+grammars%2C+there+can+be%0D%0Amany+ways+to+describe+the+correspondence+between+Text+and+Meaning.%0D%0AThe+specific+kind+of+the+MTT+grammars+suggested+by+I.+Mel%E2%80%99%C4%8Duk%0D%0Adescribes+such+a+correspondence+gradually%2C+through+many+intermediate%2C%0D%0Ahalf-finished+almost-Meanings%2C+half-Meanings%2C+half-Texts%2C%0D%0Aand+almost-Texts%2C+as+if+they+were+located+inside+the+same+sign+between%0D%0Aits+Meaning+and+Text+%28see+Figure+IV.18%29.%0D%0ASince+the+MTT+and+the+generative+approach+developed+rather+independently%2C%0D%0Aby+accident%2C+they+use+similar+terms+in+quite+different%0D%0Aand+independent+meanings.+Below+we+explain+the+differences+in+the%0D%0Ause+of+some+terms%2C+though+these+informal+explanations+are+not+strict%0D%0Adefinitions.%0D%0A124+COMPUTATIONAL+LINGUISTICS+AND+LINGUISTIC+MODELS%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+In+generative+grammar+%28see+Figure+IV.16%29%3A%0D%0A%E2%88%92+Transformation%3A+a+term+used+in+early+works+by+N.+Chomsky%0D%0Afor+a+specific+kind+of+non-context-free+derivation.%0D%0A%E2%88%92+Deep+structure%2C+in+the+transformational+grammar%2C+is+a+halffinished%0D%0Asign+with+a+special+structure+to+which+a+transformation%0D%0Ais+applied+to+obtain+a+%E2%80%9Creadier%E2%80%9D+sign.+It+is+nearer+to+the%0D%0Ainitial+symbol+than+the+surface+structure.%0D%0A%E2%88%92+Surface+structure+is+a+half-finished+sign+obtained+as+the+result%0D%0Aof+the+transformation.+It+is+nearer+to+the+ready+sign+than+the%0D%0Adeep+structure.%0D%0A%E2%88%92+Generation+is+used+roughly+as+a+synonym+of+derivation%2C+to+refer%0D%0Ato+the+process+of+enumeration+of+the+signs+in+the+given+language.%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+In+the+MTT+%28see+Figure+IV.18%29%3A%0D%0A%E2%88%92+Transformation+is+sometimes+used+for+equative+correspondences%0D%0Abetween+representations+on+different+levels.%0D%0AL+i+n+g+u+i+s+t+i+c+s+i+g+n%0D%0ATransformations%0D%0A%28equative+correspondences%29%0D%0ADeep+structure%0D%0ASurface+structure%0D%0AText%0D%0AMeaning%0D%0AFIGURE+IV.18.+Meaning+%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BCambria+Math%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E%E2%87%94%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BTimes+New+Roman%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E+Text+idea.%0D%0ALANGUAGE+AS+A+MEANING+%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BCambria+Math%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E%E2%87%94%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BTimes+New+Roman%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E+TEXT+TRANSFORMER%0D%0A125%0D%0A%E2%88%92+Deep+structure+concerns+the+representation+nearer+to+Meaning.%0D%0A%E2%88%92+Surface+structure+concerns+the+representation+nearer+to+Text.%0D%0A%E2%88%92+Generation+%28of+text%29+is+used+sometimes+as+a+synonym+of+synthesis%2C%0D%0Ai.e.%2C+construction+of+Text+for+the+given+Meaning.%0D%0AConstraint-based+idea.+Similarly+to+the+generative+grammar%2C+a%0D%0Aconstraint-based+grammar+describes+what+signs+exist+in+the+given%0D%0Alanguage%2C+however+not+by+means+of+explicit+listing+%28generation%29+of%0D%0Aall+such+signs%2C+but+rather+by+stating+the+conditions+%28constraints%29+each%0D%0Asign+of+the+given+language+must+satisfy.%0D%0AIt+can+be+viewed+as+if+it+specified+what+signs+do+not+exist+in+the%0D%0Agiven+language%3A+if+you+remove+one+rule+%28generation+option%29+from+a%0D%0Agenerative+grammar%2C+it+will+generate+less+signs.+If+you+remove+one%0D%0Arule+%28constraint%29+from+a+constraint-based+grammar%2C+it+will+allow%0D%0Amore+signs+%28i.e.%2C+allow+some+signs+that+really+are+ungrammatical+in%0D%0Athe+given+language%29.+Hence+is+the+name+constraint-based.+%28See+also%0D%0Apage+44.%29%0D%0ASince+constraint-based+grammars+do+not+use+the+generation+process%0D%0Ashown+on+Figure+IV.16%2C+their+rules+are+applied+within+the+same%0D%0Asign+rather+than+to+obtain+one+sign+from+another+%28half-finished%29+one.%0D%0AThis+makes+it+similar+to+the+MTT.+Indeed%2C+though+the+constraintbased%0D%0Aapproach+was+originated+in+the+generative+tradition%2C+modern%0D%0Aconstraint-based+grammars+such+as+HPSG+show+less+and+less+similarities%0D%0Awith+Chomskian+tradition+and+more+and+more+similarity%E2%80%94%0D%0Anot+in+the+formalism+but+in+meaningful+linguistic+structures%E2%80%94with%0D%0Athe+MTT.%0D%0AA+constraint-based+grammar+is+like+a+system+of+equations.+Let+us%0D%0Aconsider+a+simple+mathematical+analogy.%0D%0AEach+sheet+of+this+book+is+numbered+at+both+sides.+Consider+the%0D%0Aside+with+even+numbers.+Looking+at+the+page+number%2C+say%2C+32%2C+you%0D%0Acan+guess+that+it+is+printed+on+the+16-th+sheet+of+the+book.+Let+what%0D%0Ayou+see+be+Text+and+what+you+guess+be+Meaning%3B+then+this+page%0D%0Anumber+corresponds+to+a+%E2%80%9Csign%E2%80%9D+%26lt%3B32%2C+16%26gt%3B%2C+where+we+denote+%0D%0Aa+sign+with+the+Text+T+and+Meaning+M.+In+order+to+describe+such+a%0D%0A126+COMPUTATIONAL+LINGUISTICS+AND+LINGUISTIC+MODELS%0D%0A%E2%80%9Clanguage%E2%80%9D%2C+the+three+approaches+would+use+different+mathematical%0D%0Aconstructions+%28of+course%2C+in+a+very+rough+analogy%29%3A%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+Generative+grammar+is+like+a+recurrent+formula%3A+The+sign+%26lt%3B2%2C+1%26gt%3B%0D%0A%28analogue+of+the+initial+symbol%29+belongs+to+this+%E2%80%9Clanguage%E2%80%9D%2C+and+if%0D%0Abelongs+to+it%2C+then+belongs+to+it+%28analogue%0D%0Aof+a+generation+rule%29.+Note+that+some+effort+is+needed+to+figure%0D%0Aout+from+this+description+how+to+find+a+sheet+number+by+a+page%0D%0Anumber.%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+The+MTT+grammar+is+like+an+algorithm%3A+given+the+page+number+x%2C%0D%0Aits+sheet+number+is+calculated+as+x%2F2%3B+given+a+sheet+number+y%2C+its%0D%0Apage+number+is+calculated+as+2+%C3%97+y.+Note+that+we+have+made+no%0D%0Aattempt+to+describe+dealing+with%2C+or+excluding+of%2C+odd+page+numbers%0D%0Ax%2C+which+in+fact+do+not+belong+to+our+%E2%80%9Clanguage.%E2%80%9D%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+Constraint-based+grammar+is+like+an+equation+or+system+of+equations.%0D%0AJust+those+signs+belong+to+our+%E2%80%9Clanguage%2C%E2%80%9D+for+which+x+%3D%0D%0A2y.+Note+that+this+description+is+the+most+elegant+and+simple%2C%0D%0Acompletely+and+accurately+describes+our+%E2%80%9Clanguage%2C%E2%80%9D+and+requires%0D%0Aless+reversing+effort+for+practical+application+than+the+first+one.%0D%0AHowever%2C+it+is+more+complex+than+the+second+one.%0D%0AConstraint-based+idea+is+a+very+promising+approach+adopted+by%0D%0Athe+majority+of+contemporaneous+grammar+formalisms.+Probably%0D%0Awith+time%2C+the+linguistic+findings+of+the+MTT+will+be+re-formulated+in%0D%0Athe+form+of+constraint-based+rules%2C+possibly+by+a+kind+of+merging+of%0D%0Alinguistic+heri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s.+The+neurons+are+not+elementary+units+by+themselves%2C%0D%0Asince+each+of+them+is+connected+with+hundreds+of+other+neurons%0D%0Aby+their+dendrites+and+axons+in+a+very+complicated+manner.%0D%0AThe+dimensions+of+neurons%2C+dendrites%2C+and+axons+are+so+small+that%0D%0Athe+techniques+of+modern+neurophysiology+provide+no+practical+opportunity%0D%0Ato+observe+each+neuron+separately.+What+is+more%2C+the+intrusion%0D%0Aof+observing+tools+inside+the+brain+evidently+changes+the%0D%0Aactivity+under+observation.+To+understand+in+detail+the+internal+functioning%0D%0Aof+the+brain%2C+it+would+be+necessary+to+observe+vast+groups+of%0D%0Aneurons+activated+in+the+multistage+process+and+trace+back+a+grandiose%0D%0Amultiplicity+of+causal+chains.%0D%0AThen%2C+after+this+tracing%2C+the+researcher+would+be+able+to+express%0D%0Athe+detected+traces+as+rules+and+algorithms+presumably+used+by+the%0D%0Ahuman+brain.+This+is+what+might+be+called+a+neurolinguistic+model%0D%0Aof+language+processing.+However%2C+the+extremely+large+number+of%0D%0Apossible+combinations+of+signals+traced+in+such+a+way+is+well+beyond%0D%0Athe+capability+of+any+computer+to+handle.%0D%0ALeaving+aside+the+inadequacy+of+the+modern+neurophysical+techniques%2C%0D%0Athe+mathematical+tools+for+such+a+modeling+are+insufficient%0D%0Aeither.+We+cannot+even+hope+to+get+close+to+the+information+activity%0D%0ALINGUISTIC+MODELS%0D%0A131%0D%0Aof+neuron+groups+in+our+brain+with+rather+simple+mathematical+models.%0D%0AAccording+to+the+modern+point+of+view%2C+the+neurons+are+complicated%0D%0Aelements+of+logical+type.+Thus%2C+a+modeling+system+should+contain%0D%0Aelements+of+the+switching+circuitry.+However%2C+neither+deterministic%0D%0Anor+stochastic+theory+of+approximation+by+such+a+circuitry+has%0D%0Abeen+developed+well+nowadays.%0D%0AAbout+30+years+ago%2C+neural+networks+were+proposed+as+a+tool+of%0D%0Aartificial+intelligence+research.+They+consist+of+elements+referred+to%0D%0Aas+formal+neurons.+These+are+standard+logical+computational+units%0D%0Awith+rather+limited+abilities.+There+have+been+numerous+studies+attempting%0D%0Ato+apply+neural+networks+to+various+tasks+of+artificial+intelligence%0D%0Aand+particularly+to+language+processing.+If+there+are+some%0D%0Astatistical+trends+in+phenomena+under+observation+and+modeling%2C%0D%0Athese+trends+can+be+recognized+and+taken+into+account+by+this+technique.%0D%0AHowever%2C+for+computational+linguistics+the+problem+of+how+to%0D%0Achoice+the+input+and+output+signals+for+modeling+of+the+brain+activity%0D%0Aremains+unclear.+If+we+propose+some+specific+inner+representations%0D%0Afor+these+purposes%2C+then+the+formal+neurons+will+only+model%0D%0Aour+inventions+rather+than+real+language+processes.%0D%0AFor+this+reason%2C+without+revolutionary+changes+in+the+research%0D%0Atechniques+and+new+approaches+for+treatment+of+observable+data%2C%0D%0Aneurolinguistic+models+of+natural+language+understanding+are%0D%0Aunlikely+to+give+good+results+in+the+nearest+future.+At+present%2C+only%0D%0Avery+crude+features+of+brain+activity+can+be+observed+effectively%2C%0D%0Asuch+as+which+areas+within+the+brain+show+neuronal+activity+associated%0D%0Awith+human+memory%2C+general+reasoning+ability%2C+and+so+forth.%0D%0APSYCHOLINGUISTIC+MODELS%0D%0APsycholinguistics+is+a+science+investigating+the+speech+activity+of%0D%0Ahumans%2C+including+perception+and+forming+of+utterances%2C+via+psychological%0D%0Amethods.+After+creating+its+hypotheses+and+models%2C+psycholinguistics%0D%0Atests+them+through+psychological+experiments.+There132%0D%0ACOMPUTATIONAL+LINGUISTICS+AND+LINGUISTIC+MODELS%0D%0Afore%2C+psycholinguistics+is+similar+to+linguistics+in+its+objects+of+investigation%0D%0Aand+similar+to+psychology+in+its+methods.%0D%0AHere+is+an+example+of+a+psycholinguistic+experiment.+The+subject%2C%0D%0Ai.e.%2C+the+person+under+observation%2C+is+given%2C+one+by+one%2C+a+sequence%0D%0Aof+specially+selected+words+as+input+stimuli.+Then+the+subject+is%0D%0Aprompted+to+give+the+response+to+each+word+as+any+other+word+first%0D%0Acoming+to+his+or+her+mind.+The+pairs+%E2%80%9Cstimulus%E2%80%94response%E2%80%9D+are+recorded%3A%0D%0Arosa%E2%80%94roja%2C+padre%E2%80%94madre%2C+mano%E2%80%94pie%2C+etc.+Based+on+such%0D%0Aexperiments%2C+psycholinguists+put+forward+a+hypothesis+that+various%0D%0Apsychological+types+of+people+demonstrate+specific+types+of+associative%0D%0Achoices%2C+so+that+they+can+give+a+true+identification+of+the+personality%0D%0Aunder+investigation+based+exclusively+on+such+tests.%0D%0AIn+another+experiment%2C+the+objectives+can+be+nearer+to+linguistics%0D%0Aas+such.+The+series+of+utterances+with+some+syntactic+ambiguities%0D%0Aare+given+to+the+human+subjects.+The+time+required+to+the+person%0D%0Aunder+test+for+disambiguation+is+measured%2C+when+he+or+she+selects+at%0D%0Alast+one+of+possible+hypotheses.+On+the+grounds+of+experimental%0D%0Astatistics%2C+a+hypothesis+is+advanced+how+a+human+can+understand%0D%0Asuch+constructions+and+what+is+the+humans%E2%80%99+way+for+the+disambiguation.%0D%0APsycholinguistics+tries+also+to+describe+the+teaching+of+native+and%0D%0Anot+native+language%2C+social+influence+of+a+speech+on+humans%2C+and+so%0D%0Aforth.+In+such+a+way%2C+psycholinguistics+aims+to+explain+some+purely%0D%0Apsychological+features+of+people+concerning+their+speech+behavior.%0D%0APsychological+features%2C+in+their+turn%2C+are+closely+related+to+the+social%0D%0Abehavior+of+a+person.+Two+kinds+of+activities%2C+both+of+very+high%0D%0Acomplexity%2C+are+studied+in+parallel%2C+and+each+aspect+of+the+science%0D%0Aexploits+techniques+and+suggestions+from+the+other.%0D%0ATherefore%2C+psycholinguistics+usually+does+not+have+linguistic%0D%0Aideas+of+its+own.+It+adopts+them+from+various+branches+of+linguistics%0D%0Aand+then+uses+them+for+its+own+purposes+without+much+critical+review%0D%0Aand+feedback.+Purely+psychological+methods+well+adapted+to%0D%0Athe+problems+of+linguistics+as+such+have+not+yet+been+proposed%2C+so%0D%0Athat+these+methods+give+little+to+generalized+%28holistic%29+models+of%0D%0Alanguage.%0D%0ALINGUISTIC+MODELS%0D%0A133%0D%0AFUNCTIONAL+MODELS+OF+LANGUAGE%0D%0AIn+terms+of+cybernetics%2C+natural+language+is+considered+as+a+black%0D%0Abox+for+the+researcher.+A+black+box+is+a+device+with+observable+input%0D%0Aand+output+but+with+a+completely+unobservable+inner+structure.%0D%0AIn+the+framework+of+this+type+of+model%2C+language+is+thought+to+be+an%0D%0Aimaginary+%E2%80%9Cspeaking+device%E2%80%9D%3A+the+researcher+asks+the+device+some%0D%0Aquestions+and+records+its+answers.%0D%0AThe+problem+of+the+cybernetic+modeling+of+natural+language+is%0D%0Amore+difficult+than+in+other+cases%2C+since+there+are+two+such+boxes%2C%0D%0Athe+analyzing+and+synthesizing+ones%2C+working+in+opposite+directions.%0D%0AThe+analyzing+block+processes+the+utterances+and+the+synthesizing%0D%0Ablock+produces+the+reactions+to+them.%0D%0AA+researcher+observes+the+input+of+the+analyzing+block+and+the%0D%0Aoutput+of+the+synthesizing+block%2C+and+tries+to+reconstruct+the+inner%0D%0Astructure+of+each+block+separately.+Unfortunately%2C+the+output+of+the%0D%0Aanalyzer+is+not+directly+used+as+the+input+of+the+synthesizer.+There+is%0D%0Aa+block+of+reasoning+in+between%2C+and+its+behavior+is+not+described+in%0D%0Alinguistic+terms%2C+so+that+it+is+not+so+easy+to+recognize+either.%0D%0AThe+main+method+of+linguistics+is+to+construct+a+model+of+natural%0D%0Alanguage%2C+based+on+the+observable+input+and+output+texts%2C+and+on+the%0D%0Alinguist%E2%80%99s+intuition%2C+or+introspection.+The+linguists+analyze+their+own%0D%0Aintuition%2C+put+forward+hypotheses%2C+build+models+and+test+them+on%0D%0Aadditional+linguistic+material.+In+theoretical+linguistics%2C+the+novel%0D%0Aapproaches+can+be+tested+against+%28compared+with%29+intuitions+of+other%0D%0Alinguists%2C+while+in+computational+linguistics+these+approaches+can+be%0D%0Aalso+tested+through+various+applications.%0D%0AIn+this+way%2C+linguists+have+proposed+functional+models+of+language.%0D%0AThese+models+are+intended+to+give+the+rules+of+conversion+of%0D%0Athe+input+linguistic+information+to+the+output+information%2C+without%0D%0Aany+attempt+to+directly+reproduce+the+internal+mechanisms+of+brain%0D%0Aactivity.+No+anthropomorphic+features+of+the+processing+steps+are%0D%0Asearched+for%2C+and+no+direct+emulation+of+brain%E2%80%99s+responses+is+adduced.%0D%0AHowever%2C+the+ultimate+results+of+all+processing+steps+should%0D%0Abe+as+near+as+possible+to+those+of+the+human+brain.%0D%0A134+COMPUTATIONAL+LINGUISTICS+AND+LINGUISTIC+MODELS%0D%0ASo+far%2C+functional+models+have+proven+to+be+the+most+successful%0D%0Alinguistic+models%2C+probably+because+they+are+based+on+real+data+with%0D%0Aconceivable+structure%2C+easily+accessible+and+available+in+unlimited%0D%0Asupply%2C+namely%2C+on+texts+and+recorded+speech.%0D%0ARESEARCH+LINGUISTIC+MODELS%0D%0AThere+are+still+other+models+of+interest+for+linguistics.+They+are%0D%0Acalled+research+models.+At+input%2C+they+take+texts+in+natural+language%2C%0D%0Amaybe+prepared+or+formatted+in+a+special+manner+beforehand.%0D%0AAs+an+output%2C+they+produce+other+texts%2C+usually+strictly+formatted%0D%0Aand+representing+the+contents+of+dictionaries%2C+grammar+tables%2C%0D%0Arules+or+anything+similar+to+be+used+as+a+part+of+functional+models.%0D%0AAs+an+example%2C+we+can+collect+all+the+agreed+pairs+like+%E2%80%9Carticle%E2%80%94%0D%0Anoun%E2%80%9D+or+%E2%80%9Cnoun%E2%80%94adjective%2C%E2%80%9D+or+all+the+prepositions+occurring+in+an%0D%0Aopen%2C+i.e.%2C+not+prepared%2C+text+in+natural+language.+As+another+example%2C%0D%0Awe+can+extract+from+the+text+of+a+dictionary+those+items+of+a%0D%0Agiven+part+of+speech%2C+which+contain+a+predetermined+combination+of%0D%0Afeatures.%0D%0AThus%2C+research+models+are+tools+for+constructing+functional+models.%0D%0AThey+simulate+linguists+in+their+research%2C+whereas+the+functional%0D%0Amodels+simulate+humans+in+the+speech+producing+and+understanding.%0D%0ACOMMON+FEATURES+OF+MODERN+MODELS+OF+LANGUAGE%0D%0AThe+modern+models+of+language+have+turned+out+to+possess+several%0D%0Acommon+features+that+are+very+important+for+the+comprehension+and%0D%0Ause+of+these+models.+One+of+these+models+is+given+by+the+Meaning%0D%0A%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BCambria+Math%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E%E2%87%94%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BTimes+New+Roman%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E+Text+Theory+already+mentioned.+Another+model+is+that+based+on%0D%0Athe+Head-Driven+Phrase+Structure+Grammar.+The+Chomskian+approach%0D%0Awithin+the+Western+linguistic+tradition+includes+various+other%0D%0Amodels+different+from+HPSG.%0D%0AHere+are+the+main+common+features+of+all+these+models%3A%0D%0ALINGUISTIC+MODELS%0D%0A135%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+Functionality+of+the+model.+The+linguistic+models+try+to+reproduce%0D%0Afunctions+of+language+without+directly+reproducing+the+features%0D%0Aof+activity+of+the+brain%2C+which+is+the+motor+of+human+language.%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+Opposition+of+the+textual%2Fphonetic+form+of+language+to+its+semantic%0D%0Arepresentation.+The+manual+%5B9%5D%2C+depicting+three+different+wellknown%0D%0Asyntactic+theories+%28including+one+of+the+recent+variant+of%0D%0Athe+theory+by+N.+Chomsky%29%2C+notices%3A+%E2%80%9CLanguage+ultimately+expresses%0D%0Aa+relation+between+sound+at+one+end+of+the+linguistic%0D%0Aspectrum+and+meaning+at+the+other.%E2%80%9D+Just+as+the+diffuse+notion%0D%0Aspectrum+is+somehow+sharpened%2C+we+have+the+same+definition+of%0D%0Alanguage+as+in+the+MTT.+The+outer%2C+observable+form+of+language%0D%0Aactivity+is+a+text%2C+i.e.%2C+strings+of+phonetic+symbols+or+letters%2C%0D%0Awhereas+the+inner%2C+hidden+form+of+the+same+information+is+the%0D%0Ameaning+of+this+text.+Language+relates+two+these+forms+of+the%0D%0Asame+information.%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+Generalizing+character+of+language.+Separate+utterances%2C+within%0D%0Aa+speech+or+a+text%2C+are+considered+not+as+the+language%2C+but+as%0D%0Asamples+of+its+functioning.+The+language+is+a+theoretical+generalization%0D%0Aof+the+open+and+hence+infinite+set+of+utterances.+The+generalization%0D%0Abrings+in+features%2C+types%2C+structures%2C+levels%2C+rules%2C+etc.%2C%0D%0Awhich+are+not+directly+observable.+Rather+these+theoretical+constructs%0D%0Aare+fruits+of+linguist%27s+intuition+and+are+to+be+repeatedly%0D%0Atested+on+new+utterances+and+the+intuition+of+other+linguists.+The%0D%0Ageneralization+feature+is+connected+with+the+opposition+competence%0D%0Avs.+performance+in+Chomskian+theory+and+to+the+much+earlier%0D%0Aopposition+language+vs.+speech+in+the+theory+of+Ferdinand+de%0D%0ASaussure.%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+Dynamic+character+of+the+model.+A+functional+model+does+not%0D%0Aonly+propose+a+set+of+linguistic+notions%2C+but+also+shows+%28by+means%0D%0Aof+rules%29+how+these+notions+are+used+in+the+processing+of+utterances.%0D%0A136+COMPUTATIONAL+LINGUISTICS+AND+LINGUISTIC+MODELS%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+Formal+character+of+the+model.+A+functional+model+is+a+system%0D%0Aof+rules+sufficiently+rigorous+to+be+applied+to+any+text+by+a+person%0D%0Aor+an+automaton+quite+formally%2C+without+intervention+of+the%0D%0Amodel%E2%80%99s+author+or+anybody+else.+The+application+of+the+rules+to%0D%0Athe+given+text+or+the+given+meaning+always+produces+the+same+result.%0D%0AAny+part+of+a+functional+model+can+in+principle+be+expressed%0D%0Ain+a+strict+mathematical+form+and+thus+algorithmized.+19+If+no%0D%0Aready+mathematical+tool+is+available+at+present%2C+a+new+tool+should%0D%0Abe+created.+The+presupposed+properties+of+recognizability+and+algorithmizability%0D%0Aof+natural+language+are+very+important+for+the%0D%0Alinguistic+models+aimed+at+computer+implementation.%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+Non-generative+character+of+the+model.+Information+does+not%0D%0Aarise+or+generated+within+the+model%3B+it+merely+acquires+a+form%0D%0Acorresponding+to+other+linguistic+level.+We+may+thus+call+the+correspondences%0D%0Abetween+levels+equative+correspondences.+On+the%0D%0Acontrary%2C+in+the+original+generative+grammars+by+Chomsky%2C+the%0D%0Astrings+of+symbols+that+can+be+interpreted+as+utterances+are+generated%0D%0Afrom+an+initial+symbol%2C+which+has+just+abstract+sense+of+a%0D%0Asentence.+As+to+transformations+by+Chomsky+in+their+initial+form%2C%0D%0Athey+may+change+the+meaning+of+an+utterance%2C+and+thus+they+were%0D%0Anot+equative+correspondences.%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+Independence+of+the+model+from+direction+of+transformation.+The%0D%0Adescription+of+a+language+is+independent+of+the+direction+of+linguistic%0D%0Aprocessing.+If+the+processing+submits+to+some+rules%2C+these%0D%0Arules+should+be+given+in+equative+%28i.e.%2C+preserving+the+meaning%29%0D%0Abi-directional+form%2C+or+else+they+should+permit+reversion+in+principle.%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+Independence+of+algorithms+from+data.+A+description+of+language%0D%0Astructures+should+be+considered+apart+from+algorithms+using+this%0D%0Adescription.+Knowledge+about+language+does+not+imply+a+specific%0D%0Atype+of+algorithms.+On+the+contrary%2C+in+many+situations+an+algorithm%0D%0Aimplementing+some+rules+can+have+numerous+options.+For%0D%0A19+Formality+of+any+model+is+quite+natural+from+the+programming+point+of+view.%0D%0ALINGUISTIC+MODELS%0D%0A137%0D%0Aexample%2C+the+MTT+describes+the+text+level+separately+from+the%0D%0Amorphologic+and+syntactic+levels+of+the+representation+of+the%0D%0Asame+utterance.+Nevertheless%2C+one+can+imagine+an+algorithm+of%0D%0Aanalysis+that+begins+to+construct+the+corresponding+part+of+the%0D%0Asyntactic+representation+just+as+the+morphologic+representation+of%0D%0Athe+first+word+in+the+utterance+is+formed.+In+the+cases+when+linguistic%0D%0Aknowledge+is+presented+in+declarative+form+with+the+highest%0D%0Apossible+consistency%2C+implementing+algorithms+proved+to+be%0D%0Arather+universal%2C+i.e.%2C+equally+applicable+to+several+languages.%0D%0A%28Such+linguistic+universality+has+something+in+common+with+the%0D%0AUniversal+Grammar+that+N.+Chomsky+has+claimed+to+create.%29+The%0D%0Aanalogous+distinction+between+algorithms+and+data+is+used+with%0D%0Agreat+success+in+modern+compilers+of+programming+languages%0D%0A%28cf.+compiler-compilers%29.%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+Emphasis+on+detailed+dictionaries.+The+main+part+of+the+description%0D%0Aof+any+language+implies+words+of+the+language.+Hence%2C+dictionaries%0D%0Acontaining+descriptions+of+separate+words+are+considered%0D%0Athe+principal+part+of+a+rigorous+language+description.+Only%0D%0Avery+general+properties+of+vast+classes+and+subclasses+of+lexemes%0D%0Aare+abstracted+from+dictionaries%2C+in+order+to+constitute+formal%0D%0Agrammars.%0D%0ASPECIFIC+FEATURES+OF+THE+MEANING+%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BCambria+Math%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E%E2%87%94%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BTimes+New+Roman%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E+TEXT+MODEL%0D%0AThe+Meaning+%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BCambria+Math%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E%E2%87%94%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BTimes+New+Roman%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E+Text+Model+was+selected+for+the+most+detailed%0D%0Astudy+in+these+books%2C+and+it+is+necessary+now+to+give+a+short+synopsis%0D%0Aof+its+specific+features.%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+Orientation+to+synthesis.+With+the+announced+equivalence+of+the%0D%0Adirections+of+synthesis+and+analysis%2C+the+synthesis+is+considered%0D%0Aprimary+and+more+important+for+linguistics.+Synthesis+uses+the%0D%0Aentire+linguistic+knowledge+about+the+text+to+be+produced%2C%0D%0Awhereas+analysis+uses+both+purely+linguistic+and+extralinguistic%0D%0Aknowledge%2C+would+it+be+encyclopedic+information+about+the%0D%0A138+COMPUTATIONAL+LINGUISTICS+AND+LINGUISTIC+MODELS%0D%0Aworld+or+information+about+the+current+situation.+That+is+why%0D%0Aanalysis+is+sometimes+possible+on+the+base+of+a+partial+linguistic%0D%0Aknowledge.+This+can+be+illustrated+by+the+fact+that+we+sometimes%0D%0Acan+read+a+paper+in+a+nearly+unknown+language%2C+if+the+field+and%0D%0Asubject+of+the+paper+are+well+known+to+us.+%28We+then+heavily+exploit%0D%0Aour+extralinguistic+knowledge.%29+However%2C+text+analysis+is%0D%0Aconsidered+more+important+for+modern+applications.+That+is+why%0D%0Athe+generative+grammar+approach+makes+special+emphasis+on%0D%0Aanalysis%2C+whereas+for+synthesis+separate+theories+are+proposed%0D%0A%5B49%5D.+The+Meaning+%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BCambria+Math%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E%E2%87%94%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BTimes+New+Roman%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E+Text+model+admits+a+separate+description%0D%0Afor+analysis%2C+but+postulates+that+it+should+contain+the+complete%0D%0Alinguistic+and+any+additional+extralinguistic+part.%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+Multilevel+character+of+the+model.+The+model+explicitly+introduces%0D%0Aan+increased+number+of+levels+in+language%3A+textual%2C+two%0D%0Amorphologic+%28surface+and+deep%29%2C+two+syntactic+%28surface+and%0D%0Adeep%29%2C+and+semantic+one.+The+representation+of+one+level+is+considered%0D%0Aequivalent+to+that+of+any+other+level.+The+equative+Meaning%0D%0A%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BCambria+Math%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E%E2%87%92%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BTimes+New+Roman%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E+Text+processor+and+the+opposite+Text+%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BCambria+Math%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E%E2%87%92%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22color%3A+%23632423%3B+font-family%3A+%26quot%3BTimes+New+Roman%26quot%3B%2C%26quot%3Bserif%26quot%3B%3B+font-size%3A+12pt%3B%22%3E+Meaning+processor%0D%0Aare+broken+into+several+partial+modules+converting+data+from%0D%0Aone+level+to+the+adjacent+one.+Each+intermediate+level+presents%0D%0Athe+output+of+one+module+and%2C+at+the+same+time%2C+the+input+of+another%0D%0Amodule.+The+division+of+the+model+in+several+modules+must%0D%0Asimplify+rules+of+inter-level+conversions.%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+Reinforced+information-preserving+character.+The+rules+of+correspondence%0D%0Abetween+input+and+output+data+for+modules+within+the%0D%0AMTT+fully+preserve+information+equivalence+at+all+language+levels.%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+Variety+of+structures+and+formalisms.+Each+module+has+its+own%0D%0Arules+and+formalisms+in+the+MTT%2C+because+of+significant+variety+of%0D%0Astructures+reflecting+data+on+different+levels+%28strings%2C+trees%2C+and%0D%0Anetworks%2C+correspondingly%29.+On+each+level%2C+the+MTT+considers%0D%0Ajust+a+minimal+possible+set+of+descriptive+features.+On+the+contrary%2C%0D%0Athe+generative+grammar+tradition+tries+to+find+some+common%0D%0Aformalism+covering+the+whole+language%2C+so+that+the+total%0D%0ALINGUISTIC+MODELS%0D%0A139%0D%0Amultiplicity+of+features+of+various+levels+are+considered+jointly%2C%0D%0Awithout+explicit+division+to+different+levels.%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+Peculiarities+in+deep+and+surface+syntactic.+The+entities+and+syntactic%0D%0Afeatures+of+these+two+levels+are+distinctly+different+in+the%0D%0AMTT.+Auxiliary+and+functional+words+of+a+surface+disappear+at+the%0D%0Adepth.+Analogously%2C+some+syntactic+characteristics+of+wordforms%0D%0Aare+present+only+at+the+surface+%28e.g.%2C+agreement+features+of+gender%0D%0Aand+number+for+Spanish+adjectives%29%2C+whereas+other+features%2C+being%0D%0Aimplied+by+meaning%2C+are+retained+on+the+deeper+levels+as+well%0D%0A%28e.g.%2C+number+for+nouns%29.+Such+separation+facilitates+the+minimization%0D%0Aof+descriptive+means+on+each+level.+The+notions+of+deep%0D%0Aand+surface+syntactic+levels+in+Chomskian+theory+too%2C+but+as+we%0D%0Acould+already+see%2C+they+are+defined+there+in+a+quite+different+way.%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+Independence+between+the+syntactic+hierarchy+of+words+and+their%0D%0Aorder+in+a+sentence.+These+two+aspects+of+a+sentence%2C+the+labeled%0D%0Adependency+trees+and+the+word+order%2C+are+supposed+to+be+implied%0D%0Aby+different%2C+though+interconnected%2C+factors.+Formally%2C+this+leads%0D%0Ato+the+systematic+use+of+dependency+grammars+on+the+syntactic%0D%0Alevel%2C+rather+than+of+constituency+grammars.+Therefore%2C+the+basic%0D%0Arules+of+inter-level+transformations+turned+out+to+be+quite+different%0D%0Ain+the+MTT%2C+as+compared+to+the+generative+grammar.+The+basic%0D%0Aadvantage+of+dependency+grammars+is+seen+in+that+the+links%0D%0Abetween+meaningful+words+are+retained+on+the+semantic+level%2C%0D%0Awhereas+for+constituency+grammars+%28with+the+exception+of%0D%0AHPSG%29+the+semantic+links+have+to+be+discovered+by+a+separate%0D%0Amechanism.%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+Orientation+to+languages+of+a+type+different+from+English.+To+a%0D%0Acertain+extent%2C+the+opposition+between+dependency+and+constituency%0D%0Agrammars+is+connected+with+different+types+of+languages.%0D%0ADependency+grammars+are+especially+appropriate+for+languages%0D%0Awith+free+word+order+like+Latin%2C+Russian+or+Spanish%2C+while+constituency%0D%0Agrammars+suit+for+languages+with+strict+word+order+as%0D%0AEnglish.+However%2C+the+MTT+is+suited+to+describe+such+languages%0D%0Aas+English%2C+French%2C+and+German+too.+Vast+experience+in+opera140%0D%0ACOMPUTATIONAL+LINGUISTICS+AND+LINGUISTIC+MODELS%0D%0Ations+with+dependency+trees+is+accumulated+in+frame+of+the+MTT%2C%0D%0Afor+several+languages.+The+generative+tradition+%28e.g.%2C+HPSG%29%0D%0Amoves+to+the+dependency+trees+too%2C+but+with+some+reservations%0D%0Aand+in+some+indirect+manner.%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+Means+of+lexical+functions+and+synonymous+variations.+Just+the%0D%0AMTT+has+mentioned+that+the+great+part+of+word+combinations%0D%0Aknown+in+any+language+is+produced+according+to+their+mutual%0D%0Alexical+constraints.+For+example%2C+we+can+say+in+English+heart+attack%0D%0Aand+cordial+greetings%2C+but+neither+cardiac+attack+nor+hearty%0D%0Agreeting%2C+though+the+meaning+of+the+lexemes+to+be+combined%0D%0Apermit+all+these+combinations.+Such+limitations+in+the+combinability%0D%0Ahave+formed+the+calculus+of+the+so-called+lexical+functions%0D%0Awithin+the+MTT.+The+calculus+includes+rules+of+transformation+of%0D%0Asyntactic+trees+containing+lexical+functions+from+one+form+to+another.%0D%0AA+human+can+convey+the+same+meaning+in+many+possible%0D%0Aways.+For+example%2C+the+Spanish+sentence+Juan+me+prest%C3%B3+ayuda%0D%0Ais+equal+to+Juan+me+ayud%C3%B3.+Lexical+functions+permit+to+make%0D%0Athese+conversions+quite+formally%2C+thus+implementing+the+mechanism%0D%0Aof+synonymous+variations.+This+property+plays+the+essential%0D%0Arole+in+synthesis+and+has+no+analog+in+the+generative+tradition.%0D%0AWhen+translating+from+one+language+to+another%2C+a+variant+realizable%0D%0Afor+a+specific+construction+is+searched+in+the+target+language%0D%0Aamong+synonymous+syntactic+variants.+Lexical+functions+permit%0D%0Ato+standardize+semantic+representation+as+well%2C+diminishing+the%0D%0Avariety+of+labels+for+semantic+nodes.%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+Government+pattern.+In+contradistinction+to+subcategorization%0D%0Aframes+of+generative+linguistics%2C+government+patterns+in+the+MTT%0D%0Adirectly+connect+semantic+and+syntactic+valencies+of+words.+Not%0D%0Aonly+verbs%2C+but+also+other+parts+of+speech+are+described+in+terms%0D%0Aof+government+patterns.+Hence%2C+they+permit+to+explicitly+indicate%0D%0Ahow+each+semantic+valency+can+be+represented+on+the+syntactic%0D%0Alevel%3A+by+a+noun+only%2C+by+the+given+preposition+and+a+noun%2C+by%0D%0Aany+of+the+given+prepositions+and+a+noun%2C+by+an+infinitive%2C+or+by%0D%0Aany+other+way.+The+word+order+is+not+fixed+in+government+patLINGUISTIC%0D%0AMODELS%0D%0A141%0D%0Aterns.+To+the+contrary%2C+the+subcategorization+frames+for+verbs+are%0D%0Ausually+reduced+just+to+a+list+of+all+possible+combinations+of+syntactic%0D%0Avalencies%2C+separately+for+each+possible+order+in+a+sentence.%0D%0AIn+languages+with+rather+free+word+order%2C+the+number+of+such%0D%0Aframes+for+specific+verbs+can+reach+a+few+dozens%2C+and+this+obscures%0D%0Athe+whole+picture+of+semantic+valencies.+Additionally%2C+the%0D%0Avariety+of+sets+of+verbs+with+the+same+combination+of+subcategorization%0D%0Aframes+can+be+quite+comparable+with+the+total+number+of%0D%0Averbs+in+such+languages+as+Spanish%2C+French+or+Russian.%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+Keeping+traditions+and+terminology+of+classical+linguistics.+The%0D%0AMTT+treats+the+heritage+of+classical+linguistics+much+more+carefully%0D%0Athan+generative+computational+linguistics.+In+its+lasting+development%2C%0D%0Athe+MTT+has+shown+that+even+the+increased+accuracy%0D%0Aof+description+and+the+necessity+of+rigorous+formalisms+usually%0D%0Apermits+to+preserve+the+existing+terminology%2C+perhaps+after+giving%0D%0Amore+strict+definitions+to+the+terms.+The+notions+of+phoneme%2C%0D%0Amorpheme%2C+morph%2C+grammeme%2C+lexeme%2C+part+of+speech%2C+agreement%2C%0D%0Anumber%2C+gender%2C+tense%2C+person%2C+syntactic+subject%2C+syntactic%0D%0Aobject%2C+syntactic+predicate%2C+actant%2C+circonstant%2C+etc.%2C+have+been%0D%0Aretained.+In+the+frameworks+of+generative+linguistics%2C+the+theories%0D%0Aare+sometimes+constructed+nearly+from+zero%2C+without+attempts+to%0D%0Ainterpret+relevant+phenomena+in+terms+already+known+in+general%0D%0Alinguistics.+These+theories+sometimes+ignored+the+notions+and%0D%0Amethods+of+classical+linguistics%2C+including+those+of+structuralism.%0D%0AThis+does+not+always+give+an+additional+strictness.+More+often%2C%0D%0Athis+leads+to+terminological+confusion%2C+since+specialists+in+the+adjacent%0D%0Afields+merely+do+not+understand+each+other.%0D%0AREDUCED+MODELS%0D%0AWe+can+formulate+the+problem+of+selecting+a+good+model+for+any%0D%0Aspecific+linguistic+application+as+follows.%0D%0AA+holistic+model+of+the+language+facilitates+describing+the+language%0D%0Aas+a+whole+system.+However%2C+when+we+concentrate+on+the%0D%0A142+COMPUTATIONAL+LINGUISTICS+AND+LINGUISTIC+MODELS%0D%0Aobjectives+of+a+specific+application+system%2C+we+can+select+for+our%0D%0Apurposes+only+that+level%2C+or+those+levels%2C+of+the+whole+language+description%2C%0D%0Awhich+are+relevant+and+sufficient+for+the+specific+objective.%0D%0AThus%2C+we+can+use+a+reduced+model+for+algorithmization+of+a%0D%0Aspecific+application.%0D%0AHere+are+some+examples+of+the+adequate+choice+of+such+a+reduced%0D%0Adescription.%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+If+we+want+to+build+an+information+retrieval+system+based+on+the%0D%0Ause+of+keywords+that+differ+from+each+other+only+by+their+invariant%0D%0Aparts+remaining+after+cutting+off+irrelevant+suffixes+and+endings%2C%0D%0Athen+no+linguistic+levels+are+necessary.+All+words+like%0D%0AM%C3%A9xico%2C+mexicanos%2C+mexicana%2C+etc.%2C+can+be+equivalent+for+such+a%0D%0Asystem.+Other+relevant+groups+can+be+gobierno%2C+gobiernos%2C+or%0D%0Aciudad%2C+ciudades%2C+etc.+Thus%2C+we+can+use+a+list+containing+only+the%0D%0Ainitial+substrings+%28i.e.%2C+stems+or+quasi-stems%29+like+mexic-%2C%0D%0Agobierno-%2C+ciudad-%2C+etc.+We+also+will+instruct+the+program+to+ignore%0D%0Athe+case+of+letters.+Our+tasks+can+be+solved+by+a+simple%0D%0Asearch+for+these+substrings+in+the+text.+Thus%2C+linguistic+knowledge%0D%0Ais+reduced+here+to+the+list+of+substrings+mentioned+above.%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+If+we+want+to+consider+in+our+system+the+wordforms+dorm%C3%AD%2C%0D%0Aduermo%2C+durmi%C3%B3%2C+etc.%2C+or+ser%C3%A1%2C+es%2C+fui%2C+era%2C+sido%2C+etc.+as+equivalent%0D%0Akeywords%2C+then+we+must+introduce+the+morphologic+level+of+description.%0D%0AThis+gives+us+a+method+of+how+to+automatically+reduce%0D%0Aall+these+wordforms+to+standard+forms+like+dormir+or+ser.%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+If+we+want+to+distinguish+in+our+texts+those+occurrences+of+the%0D%0Astring+M%C3%A9xico+that+refer+to+the+name+of+the+city%2C+from+the+occurrences%0D%0Athat+refer+to+name+of+the+state+or+country%2C+then+we+should%0D%0Aintroduce+both+morphologic+and+syntactic+levels.+Indeed%2C+only%0D%0Aword+combinations+or+the+broader+contexts+of+the+relevant+words%0D%0Acan+help+us+to+disambiguate+such+word+occurrences.%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+In+a+spell+checker+without+limitations+on+available+memory%2C+we%0D%0Acan+store+all+wordforms+in+the+computer+dictionary.+Nevertheless%2C%0D%0Aif+the+memory+is+limited+and+the+language+is+highly+inflectional%2C%0D%0ALINGUISTIC+MODELS%0D%0A143%0D%0Alike+Spanish%2C+French+or+Russian%2C+we+will+have+to+use+some+morphologic%0D%0Arepresentation+%28splitting+words+to+stems+and+endings%29%0D%0Afor+all+the+relevant+wordforms.%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+In+grammar+checkers%2C+we+should+take+morphologic+and+syntactic%0D%0Alevels%2C+in+order+to+check+the+syntactic+structures+of+all+the+sentences.%0D%0AThe+semantic+level+usually+remains+unnecessary.%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+For+translation+from+one+natural+language+to+another%2C+rather+distant%2C%0D%0Alanguage%2C+all+the+linguistic+levels+are+necessary.+However%2C%0D%0Afor+translation+between+two+very+similar+languages%2C+only+morphologic%0D%0Aand+syntactic+levels+may+be+necessary.+For+the+case+of%0D%0Asuch+very+%E2%80%9Cisomorphic%E2%80%9D+languages+as+Spanish+and+Portuguese%2C%0D%0Athe+morphologic+level+alone+may+suffice.%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+If+we+create+a+very+simple+system+of+understanding+of+sentences%0D%0Awith+a+narrow+subject+area%2C+a+small+dictionary%2C+and+a+very+strict%0D%0Aorder+of+words%2C+we+can+reduce+the+dictionary+to+the+set+of+strings%0D%0Areflecting+initial+parts+of+the+words+actually+used+in+such+texts%0D%0Aand+directly+supply+them+with+the+semantic+interpretations.+In+this%0D%0Away%2C+we+entirely+avoid+the+morphologic+and+syntactic+problems%3B%0D%0Aonly+the+textual+and+the+semantic+levels+of+representation+are%0D%0Anecessary.%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+If+we+create+a+more+robust+system+of+text+understanding%2C+then+we%0D%0Ashould+take+a+full+model+of+language+plus+a+reasoning+subsystem%2C%0D%0Afor+the+complete+semantic+interpretation+of+the+text.%0D%0AHowever%2C+to+make+a+reasonable+choice+of+any+practical+situation%2C%0D%0Awe+need+to+know+the+whole+model.%0D%0ADO+WE+REALLY+NEED+LINGUISTIC+MODELS%3F%0D%0ANow+let+us+reason+a+little+bit+on+whether+computer+scientists+really%0D%0Aneed+a+generalizing+%28complete%29+model+of+language.%0D%0AIn+modern+theoretical+linguistics%2C+certain+researchers+study+phonology%2C%0D%0Athe+other+ones+morphology%2C+the+third+ones+syntax%2C+and+the%0D%0A144+COMPUTATIONAL+LINGUISTICS+AND+LINGUISTIC+MODELS%0D%0Afourth+ones+semantics+and+pragmatics.+Within+phonology%2C+somebody%0D%0Abecame+absorbed+in+accentuation%2C+within+semantics%2C+in+speech+acts%2C%0D%0Aetc.+There+is+no+limit+to+the+subdivision+of+the+great+linguistic+science%2C%0D%0Aas+well+as+there+is+seemingly+no+necessity+to+occupy+oneself%0D%0Aonce+more%2C+after+ancient+Greeks%2C+Ferdinand+de+Saussure+and+Noam%0D%0AChomsky%2C+with+the+philosophical+question+%E2%80%9CWhat+is+natural+language%0D%0Aand+what+should+its+general+model+be%3F%E2%80%9D%0D%0AThe+main+criteria+of+truth+in+theoretical+linguistic+research+are+its%0D%0Alogical+character%2C+consistency%2C+and+correspondence+between+intuitive%0D%0Aconceptions+about+the+given+linguistic+phenomena+of+the+theory%E2%80%99s%0D%0Aauthor+and+of+other+members+of+linguists%E2%80%99+community.%0D%0AIn+this+sense%2C+the+works+of+modern+specialists+in+theoretical+linguistics%0D%0Aseem+to+be+just+stages+of+inner+development+of+this+science.%0D%0AIt+often+seems+unnecessary+to+classify+them+according+to+whether%0D%0Athey+support+or+correspond+to+any+complete+model.%0D%0AThe+situation+in+computational+linguistics+is+somewhat+different.%0D%0AHere+the+criterion+of+truth+is+the+proximity+of+results+of+functioning%0D%0Aof+a+program+for+processing+language+utterances+to+the+ideal+performance%0D%0Adetermined+by+mental+abilities+of+an+average+speaker+of%0D%0Athe+language.+Since+the+processing+procedure%2C+because+of+its+complexity%2C%0D%0Ashould+be+split+into+several+stages%2C+a+complete+model+is%0D%0Aquite+necessary+to+recommend+what+formal+features+and+structures%0D%0Aare+to+be+assigned+to+the+utterances+and+to+the+language+as+a+whole%0D%0Aon+each+stage%2C+and+how+these+features+should+interact+and+participate%0D%0Aat+each+stage+of+linguistic+transformations+within+computer.+Thus%2C%0D%0Aall+theoretical+premises+and+results+should+be+given+here+quite+explicitly%0D%0Aand+should+correspond+to+each+other+in+theirs+structures+and%0D%0Ainterfaces.%0D%0ATheoreticians+tell+us+about+the+rise+of+experimental+linguistics+on%0D%0Athis+basis.+It+seems+that+in+the+future%2C+experimental+tests+of+the+deepest%0D%0Aresults+in+all+%E2%80%9Cpartial%E2%80%9D+linguistic+theories+will+be+an+inevitable%0D%0Aelement+of+evolution+of+this+science+as+a+whole.+As+to+computational%0D%0Alinguistics%2C+the+computerized+experimentation+is+crucial+right+now%2C%0D%0Aand+it+is+directly+influenced+by+what+structures+are+selected+for+lanLINGUISTIC%0D%0AMODELS%0D%0A145%0D%0Aguage+description+and+what+processing+steps+are+recommended+by%0D%0Athe+theory.%0D%0ATherefore%2C+the+seemimgly+philosophical+problem+of+linguistic%0D%0Amodeling+turned+out+to+be+primordial+for+computational+linguistics.%0D%0ATwo+linguistic+models+selected+from+their+vast+variety+will+be+studied%0D%0Ain+this+book+in+more+detail.%0D%0AANALOGY+IN+NATURAL+LANGUAGES%0D%0AAnalogy+is+the+prevalence+of+a+pattern+%28i.e.%2C+one+rule+or+a+small+set%0D%0Aof+rules%29+in+the+formal+description+of+some+linguistic+phenomena.+In%0D%0Athe+simplest+case%2C+the+pattern+can+be+represented+with+the+partially%0D%0Afilled+table+like+the+one+on+the+page+20%3A%0D%0Arevoluci%C3%B3n+revolution%0D%0Ainvestigaci%C3%B3n+%3F%0D%0AThe+history+of+any+natural+language+contains+numerous+cases%0D%0Awhen+a+phonologic+or+morphologic+pattern+became+prevailing+and%2C%0D%0Aby+analogy%2C+has+adduced+words+with+similar+properties.%0D%0AAn+example+of+analogy+in+Spanish+phonology+is+the+availability%0D%0Aof+the+e+before+the+consonant+combinations+sp-%2C+st-%2C+sn-%2C+or+sf-+at+the%0D%0Abeginning+of+words.+In+Latin%2C+the+combinations+sp-+and+st-+at+the%0D%0Ainitial+position+were+quite+habitual%3A+specialis%2C+spectaculum%2C+spiritus%2C%0D%0Astatua%2C+statura%2C+etc.%0D%0AWhen+Spanish+language+was+developed+from+Vulgar+Latin%2C+all%0D%0Asuch+words+had+been+considered+uneasy+in+their+pronunciation+and%0D%0Ahave+been+supplied+with+e-%3A+especial%2C+espect%C3%A1culo%2C+esp%C3%ADritu%2C+estatua%2C%0D%0Aestatura%2C+etc.+Thus%2C+a+law+of+%E2%80%9Chispanicizing+by+analogy%E2%80%9D+was%0D%0Aformed%2C+according+to+which+all+words+with+such+a+phonetic+peculiarity%2C%0D%0Awhile+loaned+from+any+foreign+language%2C+acquire+the+e+as+the%0D%0Ainitial+letter.%0D%0AWe+can+compile+the+following+table+of+analogy%2C+where+the+right%0D%0Acolumn+gives+Spanish+words+after+their+loaning+from+various+languages%3A%0D%0A146+COMPUTATIONAL+LINGUISTICS+AND+LINGUISTIC+MODELS%0D%0Astatura+%28Lat.%29+estatura%0D%0Asphaira+%28Gr.%29+esfera%0D%0Aslogan+%28Eng.%29+eslogan%0D%0Asmoking+%28Eng.%29+esmoquin%0D%0Astandardize+%28Eng.%29+estandarizar%0D%0AAs+another+example%2C+one+can+observe+a+multiplicity+of+nouns+ending%0D%0Ain+-ci%C3%B3n+in+Spanish%2C+though+there+exist+another+suffixes+for+the%0D%0Asame+meaning+of+action+and%2For+its+result%3A+-miento%2C+-aje%2C+-azgo%2C+-anza%2C%0D%0Aetc.+Development+of+Spanish+in+the+recent+centuries+has+produced+a%0D%0Agreat+number+of+-ci%C3%B3n-words+derived+by+analogy%2C+so+that+sometimes%0D%0Aa+special+effort+is+necessary+to+avoid+their+clustering+in+one+sentence%0D%0Afor+better+style.+Such+a+stylistic+problem+has+been+even+called+cacophony.%0D%0ANevertheless%2C+an+important+feature+of+language+restricts+the+law+of%0D%0Aanalogy.+If+the+analogy+generates+too+many+homonyms%2C+easy+understanding%0D%0Aof+speech+is+hampered.+In+such+situations%2C+analogy+is+not%0D%0Ausually+applied.%0D%0AA+more+general+tendency+can+be+also+observed.+Lexicon+and+levels%0D%0Aof+natural+language+are+conceptual+systems+of+intricately+interrelated%0D%0Asubsystems.+If+a+feature+of+some+subsystem+has+the+tendency%0D%0Ato+change+and+this+hinders+the+correct+functioning+of+another+subsystem%2C%0D%0Athen+two+possible+ways+for+bypassing+the+trouble+can+be+observed.%0D%0AFirst%2C+the+innovation+of+the+initiating+subsystem+can+be+not%0D%0Aaccepted.+Second%2C+the+influenced+subsystem+can+also+change+its%0D%0Arules%2C+introducing+in+turn+its+own+innovations.%0D%0AFor+example%2C+if+a+metonymic+change+of+meaning+gives+a+new%0D%0Aword%2C+and+the+new+word+frequently+occurs+in+the+same+contexts+as%0D%0Athe+original+one%2C+then+this+can+hinder+the+comprehension.+Hence%2C%0D%0Aeither+the+novel+or+the+original+word+should+be+eliminated+from+language.%0D%0AIn+modern+languages%2C+one+can+see+the+immediate+impact+of+analogy%0D%0Ain+the+fact+that+the+great+amount+of+scientific%2C+technical%2C+and%0D%0Apolitical+terms+is+created+according+to+quite+a+few+morphologic%0D%0Arules.+For+example%2C+the+Spanish+verbs+automatizar%2C+pasteurizar%2C%0D%0ALINGUISTIC+MODELS%0D%0A147%0D%0Aglobalizar%2C+etc.%2C+are+constructed+coming+from+a+noun+%28maybe+proper%0D%0Aname%29+expressing+a+conception+%28aut%C3%B3mata%2C+Pasteur%2C+globo%2C+etc.%29+and%0D%0Athe+suffix+-izar%2F-alizar+expressing+the+idea+of+subjection+to+a+conception%0D%0Aor+functioning+according+to+it.%0D%0AComputational+linguistics+directly+uses+the+laws+of+analogy+in+the%0D%0Aprocessing+of+unknown+words.+Any+online+dictionary+is+limited+in%0D%0Aits+size+so+that+many+words+already+known+in+the+language+are+absent%0D%0Ain+it+%28say%2C+because+these+words+appear+in+the+language+after+the%0D%0Adictionary+was+compiled%29.+To+%E2%80%9Cunderstand%E2%80%9D+such+words+in+some%0D%0Away%2C+the+program+can+presuppose+the+most+common+and+frequent%0D%0Aproperties.%0D%0ALet+us+imagine%2C+for+instance%2C+a+Spanish-speaking+reader+who%0D%0Ameets+the+word+internetizar%C3%A1n+in+a+text.+Basing+on+the+morphologic%0D%0Arules%2C+he+or+she+readily+reconstructs+the+infinitive+of+the+hypothetical%0D%0Averb+internetizar.+However%2C+this+verb+is+not+familiar+either%2C+whereas%0D%0Athe+word+Internet+could+be+already+included+in+his+or+her+mental%0D%0Adictionary.+According+to+the+analogy+implied+by+-izar%2C+the+reader%0D%0Athus+can+conclude+that+internetizar+means+%E2%80%98to+make+something+to%0D%0Afunction+on+the+principles+of+Internet.%E2%80%99%0D%0AA+natural+language+processor+can+reason+just+in+the+same+way.%0D%0AMoreover%2C+when+such+a+program+meets+a+word+like+linuxizar+it+can%0D%0Asuppose+that+there+exists+a+conception+linux+even+if+it+is+absent+in+the%0D%0Amachine+dictionary.+Such+supposition+can+suggest+a+very+rough%0D%0A%E2%80%9Ccomprehension%E2%80%9D+of+the+unknown+word%3A+%E2%80%98to+make+something+to%0D%0Afunction+on+the+principles+of+linux%2C%E2%80%99+even+if+the+word+linux+is+left%0D%0Aincomprehensible.%0D%0AEMPIRICAL+VERSUS+RATIONALIST+APPROACHES%0D%0AIn+the+recent+years%2C+the+interest+to+empirical+approach+in+linguistic%0D%0Aresearch+has+livened.+The+empirical+approach+is+based+on+numerous%0D%0Astatistical+observations+gathered+purely+automatically.+Hence%2C+it+can%0D%0Abe+called+statistical+approach+as+well.+It+is+opposed+to+the+rationalist%0D%0Aapproach%2C+which+requires+constructing+a+functional+model+of+language%0D%0Aon+the+base+of+texts+and+the+researcher%E2%80%99s+intuition.+Through148%0D%0ACOMPUTATIONAL+LINGUISTICS+AND+LINGUISTIC+MODELS%0D%0Aout+this+book%2C+we+explain+only+the+rationalist+approach%2C+both+in+the%0D%0Avariants+of+the+generative+grammar%2C+and+of+the+MTT.%0D%0AThe+empirical+approach+can+be+illustrated+more+easily+on+the+example%0D%0Aof+the+machine+translation.+A+huge+bilingual+corpus+of+text+is%0D%0Abeing+taken%2C+i.e.%2C+two+very+long%2C+equal+in+the+meaning%2C+and+arranged%0D%0Ain+parallel%2C+texts+in+two+different+languages.+Statistics+is+being+gathered%0D%0Aon+text+fragments+going+in+nearly+equal+places+on+the+opposite%0D%0Asides+of+the+bilingual.+An+attempt+is+being+made+to+learn+how%2C+for%0D%0Aany+fragment+in+one+language+%28including+those+not+yet+met+in+the%0D%0Acorpus%29%2C+to+find+a+fragment+in+other+language%2C+which+is+equivalent+to%0D%0Athe+former+in+the+meaning.+ThC+solution+would+give+the+translation%0D%0Aof+any+text+by+the+empirical+method.%0D%0AIt+can+be+seen+that+such+a+method+unites+two+types+of+models%0D%0Agiven+above%E2%80%94research+and+functional+ones.+It+is+also+obvious+that+it%0D%0Ais+impossible+to+accumulate+the+statistics+in+general%2C+without+elaboration%0D%0Aof+some+definitions+and+specifications.%0D%0AIt+is+first+necessary+to+determine+what+is+the+size+of+fragments+to%0D%0Abe+compared%2C+what+are+%E2%80%9Cnearly+equal%E2%80%9D+places+and+what+is+the+equivalence%0D%0A%28or+rather+quasi-equivalence%29+of+the+fragments+in+the+two+parallel%0D%0Atexts.+Hence%2C+the+answer+to+these+questions+requires+some+elements%0D%0Aof+a+rationalist+model%2C+as+it+was+exposed+everywhere+above.%0D%0AIt+is+difficult+to+deny+the+need+of+statistical+observations+in+computational%0D%0Alinguistics.+In+particular%2C+in+any+rationalist+model+we%0D%0Ashould+take+into+account+those+linguistic+phenomena+%28lexemes%2C+syntactic%0D%0Aconstructions%2C+etc.%29+that+can+be+met+in+texts+most+frequently.%0D%0AThat+is+why+we+will+spare+the+space+in+this+book+for+statistical%0D%0Amethods+in+computational+linguistics.%0D%0AAs+to+the+empirical+method+just+outlined%2C+its+real+succeses+are%0D%0Astill+unknown.%0D%0AA+common+feature+of+rationalist+and+empiric+methods+is+that+both%0D%0Aof+them+presuppose+natural+language+cognizable+and+algorithmizable.%0D%0ALinguists+and+philosophers+suggest+sometimes+the+opposite%0D%0Apoint+of+view.+They+argue+that+since+human+beings+usually+reason%0D%0Awithout+any+limitations+of+logic%2C+their+language+activity+can+also%0D%0Alack+a+logical+and+algorithmic+basis.%0D%0ALINGUISTIC+MODELS%0D%0A149%0D%0AAs+applied+to+the+natural+language%2C+this+pessimistic+viewpoint%0D%0Ahowever+contradicts+to+the+everyday+human+practice%2C+as+well+as+to%0D%0Athe+practice+of+modern+computational+linguistics.+Humans+can+manage%0D%0Aa+new+natural+language+in+any+age+and+in+a+rather+rational+manner%2C%0D%0Awhereas+computational+linguistics+has+already+managed+some%0D%0Afeatures+of+natural+language%2C+and+the+process+of+mastering+is+going%0D%0Aon.+Thus%2C+we+may+neglect+this+pessimistic+point+of+view.%0D%0ALIMITED+SCOPE+OF+THE+MODERN+LINGUISTIC+THEORIES%0D%0AEven+the+most+advanced+linguistic+theories+cannot+pretend+to+cover%0D%0Aall+computational+problems%2C+at+least+at+present.+Indeed%2C+all+of+them%0D%0Aevidently+have+the+following+limitations%3A%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+Only+the+problems+of+morphology+and+syntax+are+under+intensive%0D%0Aelaboration+in+these+theories%2C+whereas+semantics+is+investigated+to%0D%0Aa+significantly+lesser+degree.+The+goal+of+atomization+and+quite%0D%0Aconsistent+decomposition+of+semantic+components+remained+unattained.%0D%0AThe+more+limited+problem+of+rational+decomposition+of%0D%0Aword+meaning%2C+i.e.%2C+of+the+semantic+representation+for+a+given%0D%0Alexeme+through+the+meaning+of+some+other+more+simple+ones%2C+is%0D%0Anot+yet+solved+on+a+large+scale+in+any+language.+This+is+the+great%0D%0Aproblem+of+lexical+semantics.+It+develops+well%2C+but+computational%0D%0Alinguistics+considers+this+development+too+slow+and+lacking+immediate%0D%0Aconnection+with+computations.%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+Modern+semantics+cannot+yet+formalize+its+problems+adjacent+to%0D%0Apragmatics+to+the+degree+sufficient+for+applications.+Indeed%2C+there%0D%0Ais+no+complete+theory+of+links+between+the+meaning+of+text+and%0D%0Athe+goals+of+this+text+in+a+practical+situation%2C+as+well+as+between%0D%0Athe+speaker%E2%80%99s+intentions+and+the+listener%E2%80%99s+perception%2C+though%0D%0Athere+are+numerous+valuable+observations+on+these+aspects.+For%0D%0Aexample%2C+computational+linguistics+cannot+distinguish+that+the%0D%0ASpanish+utterance+%C2%BFD%C3%B3nde+est%C3%A1+la+sal%3F+is+a+real+query+for+information%0D%0Aabout+the+salt%2C+whereas+%C2%BFPodr%C3%ADa+usted+pasarme+la+sal%3F+is+a%0D%0Arequest+for+the+specific+action+given+in+a+polite+form.+As+another%0D%0A150+COMPUTATIONAL+LINGUISTICS+AND+LINGUISTIC+MODELS%0D%0Aexample%2C+no+automate+can+%E2%80%9Ccomprehend%E2%80%9D+so+far+that+the+sentence%0D%0ANi%C3%B1os+son+ni%C3%B1os+is+not+a+trivial+tautology%2C+but+the+idea+that+children%0D%0Ahave+specific+features+of+their+own+and+thus+should+be%0D%0Atreated+properly.+To+cope+with+such+intricacies%2C+linguists+should%0D%0Amodel+the+human+world+with+respect+to+its+customs%2C+habits%2C+etiquette%2C%0D%0Arelations+between+generations%2C+etc.+This+is+an+extralinguistic%0D%0Aknowledge+of+encyclopedic+type.+Until+now%2C+computational%0D%0Alinguistics+and+artificial+intelligence+do+not+know+how+to+effectively%0D%0Adistinguish%2C+to+assemble+apart+and+then+to+combine+the%0D%0Aknowledge+of+purely+linguistic+and+evidently+encyclopedic+type.%0D%0AWhat+is+more%2C+a+%E2%80%9Cdictionary%2C%E2%80%9D+which+specifies+all+encyclopedic%0D%0Ainformation+needed+for+comprehension+of+texts+rather+simple+for%0D%0Aa+human+to+understand%2C+would+be+so+huge+that+it+is+unlikely+to+be%0D%0Acompiled+with+sufficient+completeness+in+the+nearest+future.%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+The+results+of+the+recent+investigations+mainly+cover+separate%0D%0Asentences%2C+but+not+discourses.+The+complicated+semantics+of+discourse%2C%0D%0Aincluding+the+information+on+referential+links+between%0D%0Adifferent+entities%2C+a+target+matter+under+explanation%2C+current+author%E2%80%99s%0D%0Aestimations%2C+and+the+author%E2%80%99s+planning+of+the+discourse%2C%0D%0Astill+waits+its+deeper+research.%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+It+is+well+known+in+theoretical+linguistics%2C+that+the+set+of+wordforms%0D%0Acomprising+a+sentence+is+chosen+according+to+the+main%0D%0Amatter+of+this+sentence%2C+whereas+the+word+order+depends+both+on%0D%0Athis+wordform+set+%28e.g.%2C+a+preposition+should+precede+the+related%0D%0Anoun%29+and+on+communicative+structure+of+a+text.+This+notion+reflects%0D%0Awhat+the+author+considers+already+known+or+presupposed+at%0D%0Athis+stage+of+the+communication+process+%28i.e.+topic%29+and+what+information%0D%0Ahe+or+she+chooses+to+communicate+right+now+%28i.e.%0D%0Acomment%29.+In+generative+grammars%2C+the+variations+of+word+order%0D%0Adepending+on+communicative+structure+of+texts+had+not+been+even%0D%0Anoticed+for+a+long+time.+The+MTT+and+general+linguistics+as+a%0D%0Awhole+give+now+a+rather+elaborated+informal+study+of+these+problems.%0D%0AFor+example%2C+this+study+explains+the+obvious+difference+in%0D%0Ameaning+between+Spanish+sentences+Juan+lleg%C3%B3+%E2%80%98Juan+came%E2%80%99+and%0D%0ALINGUISTIC+MODELS%0D%0A151%0D%0ALleg%C3%B3+Juan+%E2%80%98It+is+Juan+who+came%2C%E2%80%99+where+the+same+words+go+in%0D%0Adifferent+order.+As+a+more+complicated+example+using+the+same%0D%0Awordforms+but+in+different+order%2C+the+sentence+En+M%C3%A9xico+se%0D%0Ahabla+el+espa%C3%B1ol+%E2%80%98In+Mexico%2C+Spanish+is+spoken%E2%80%99+turns+to+be+unconditionally%0D%0Atrue%2C+while+the+meaning+of+El+espa%C3%B1ol+se+habla+en%0D%0AM%C3%A9xico+%E2%80%98Spanish+is+spoken+in+Mexico%E2%80%99+is+quite+different+and+dubious%2C%0D%0Asince+Spanish+is+spoken+not+only+in+Mexico.+In+spite+of+all%0D%0Athe+theoretical+advances%2C+the+global+formalization+of+communicative%0D%0Astructures+is+not+yet+attained.+So+far%2C+these+advances+cannot%0D%0Abe+used+for+either+text+synthesis+or+analysis.%0D%0A%E2%80%A2+The+problem+of+how+people+learn+natural+language+in+their+childhood%0D%0Aremains+unsolved.+The+idea+of+linguistic+universalities+once%0D%0Aintroduced+in+general+linguistics+has+transformed+now+into+the%0D%0Aidea+of+the+Universal+Grammar+by+Chomsky.+All+languages+are%0D%0Aconsidered+species+of+this+grammar%2C+with+a+finite+set+of+gene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